Вопрос 1-3
.docxВопрос 1. Morphology. Parts of speech. The notional and the functional PoS.
PoS are the grammatical categories in to which words can be group depending how the function in meaning as well as grammatically within grammer
PoS consist of:
Notional PoS (Условные)-Noun, Interjection, Verb, Pronoun, Adverb, Adjective, Numeral.
Independent
In meaning
Functional
Ex: She turned round.
Functional PoS (Функциональные)- Preposition, Conjunction, Article, Particle
Connect words and sentences and specify (указатели)
Ex: She turned round the house
Вопрос 2. The Noun and its classification. The number of the Noun.
The Noun- PoS that denotes object living beings abstract notion different phenomena.
The Noun consists of:
A Common Noun (Нарицательные) - names any one of a group of persons, places, things, or ideas.
Ex: man, building, state.
A common noun may be: Concrete/Abstract/Collective
Concrete noun fall into class and material:
A class noun refers an object to the same class or things (a book, a room, a man)
A material noun denotes substance and is generally uncountable (bread, juice, glass, coal, chalk)
An abstract noun names an idea, some quality or a characteristic (freedom, happiness, competence, power)
A collective noun names a group of people or things (a government, a family, people, clothes
A Proper Noun (Имена собственные) - names a particular person, place, geographic.
Ex: Abraham Lincoln, White House, Texas.
Proper nouns may become common if:
1) the name of a painter, writer, inventor, designer, a firm is used to denote some work
2) they denote characteristic qualities of the bearer of the name ( but not the person himself)
Proper names: the city, parliament, congress, the tube, the tower, the channel , the globe, the (виды) sea
Collective Nouns ( Собирательные) - Collective nouns denote:
Groups of people (team, cast, family, company…)
2) Names of multitude ( police, people…)
3) Nouns which occur only in the plural form and require the verb in the plural ( clothes, goods, customs, arms, binoculars, glasses, trousers…)
a) The contents of smth ( a bottle, a bag, a room, a book) are everything that is contained in it
b) The contents of a speech, a television programme, an essay is its subject matter and the ideas that are in it, in contrast to such things as its form or style.
4) Nouns which are always singular in form (except the word "news") and take the verb in the singular. Here belong:
a) abstract nouns: advice, news, money, information, weather, rubbish, work, knowledge, progress, traffic, accommodation.
b) material nouns: baggage, luggage, jewellery, furniture, equipment, (bed)linen, clutter, litter, garbage, rubbish..)
c) names of diseases: measles, mumps, diabetes, shingles, hepatitis.
Classification of nouns
Countable: it can agree with the verb in the singular and in the plural; it can also take the indefinite
article. The indefinite pronouns (not) many or (a) few are used with it.
Uncountable: it agrees with the verb only in the singular; it can’t take the indefinite article. (not) much / (a) little are used with it.
Number
Countable nouns in English have two numbers — the singular and the plural, which can be expressed in English by:
1. adding -s or -es to the singular form of a noun: wish-wishes, day-days
2. the change of the root vowel: a man — men, a goose — geese , a louse — lice
3. identical forms for the singular and for the plural:
1) a deer — two deer , a sheep — ten sheep , a swine — a lot of swine
2) a fish — (many) fish (also with some kinds of fish: a carp, a pike, a salmon, a trout, etc.)
3) a bison- bison(s)
4) a species- three species
5) a lazy-bones – lazy-bones (лентяи)
Names of nationalities ending in -ese, -ss also have identical forms for the singular and for the plural: a Portuguese — ten Portuguese, a Burmese — the Burmese
4. foreign plurals:
Singular ending: us, a, um ex, ix, is, on
Regular plural: uses, as, ums, exes, ixes, ons
Latin ( Greek) plural: I, ae, a, ices, ices, es,
5. The plural of compound nouns.
1) Generally compounds form the plural by adding -(e)s to the second element. : a grown-up — grown-ups
Искл: a passer by – passers by ; a hanger on – hangers on ;
2) Nouns ending in -in-law add the plural -s to the noun: a father-in-law — fathers-in-law
3) If the first element is man or woman, we change both elements: a woman-driver — women-drivers, men-servants;
6. Uncountable nouns that are always in singular:
Advice, money, news, progress, work, furniture, rubbish, hair, guest, weather…
7. Uncountable nouns that aren’t plural:
Sweepings, odds and ends, greens, customs, scales, goods, shorts, trousers…
Вопрос 3. The Noun. The Case and Gender of the Noun.
Case
Is the grammatically categories that shows the relation of the noun with the other words , in the sentences is expressed by the form of the noun.
Case have 2 elements: Common (Общий) and Possessive (Притяжательный)
The common case hasn’t inflections, but has general meaning
Ex: teacher, student
The Possessive case expresses possession belonging
Для одуш-х: N’s + N
Ex: Grandma glasses
Для неодуш-х: No of N
Ex: the leg of table
The Possessive Case is formed in the following ways:
by adding “s” or “just” (the apostrophe) to the stem of the noun in the singular not ending in “s”.
Ex: the boy’s toy, a child’s game, student’s grammar
by adding “only” to the noun in the plural. The second “s” is not used:
Ex: students’ life, workers’ wages
3) by adding an apostrophe (‘) and “s”, if a proper name ends in -s, -x, -z. In this case the full inflection is pronounced: Max’s ['mæksɪz] doubts
4) By adding the inflection “s” to the last element of a compound noun:
Ex: a brother-in-law’s virtues.
2. The possessive case use with inanimate nouns denoting:
1) time or distance: a moment’s silence, a two-miles’ drive.
2) seasons, years, months and days: a summer’s morning, July’s heat, today’s news.
3) countries, cities and towns: England’s history, France’s gardens.
4) unique nouns (the world, the sun, the moon, the earth, names of planets): the sun’s rays, the world’s history.
5) names of vessels: the ship’s crew, the yacht’s owner
6) ordinary objects: the river’s bed, the ocean’s roar
The group Possessive is used , when two coordinate nouns express join+ possession
Ex: Peter and Mary’s father – 1 common father
Ex: Peter’s and Mary’s fathers – 2 different fathers
Absolute Possessive is used:
1) to express some locality (with local meaning: a house, a shop, a clinic, an auction, etc.) : the baker’s, the barber’s
2) with partative meaning which equals to “one of” : Bess is a friend of my mother’s.
3) to express some strong emotions (mostly negative ones) : How I dislike that new boyfriend of Susan’s!
! When dedication is implied – we don’t use the Possessive Case
Gender
The category of gender isn’t grammatically expressed in English. We can name of a gender of nouns based on:
the lexical meaning of the noun:
Ex: a man — a woman, a boy — a girl,
based on personal pronouns (he, she, it):
Ex: The principal entered the hall and everybody rose to greet her.
based on the suffixes -ess, -ine, -ina, -er, -ette:
Ex: a manager — a manageress, a poet — a poetess…
To be politically correctly we use:
use plural forms:
Ex: Lawyers must pass the bar exam before they begin to practise.
use both pronouns:
Ex: A lawyer must pass the bar exam before he or she can begin to practise.
eliminating the pronouns:
Ex: A lawyer must pass the bar exam before beginning to practise.
using non-sexist words like:
Ex: a chairlady — a chairperson, a congressman — a member of Congress
The use of female gender is traditional with the names of vessels (ships, boats, cruisers, etc.), vehicles (cars, coaches, planes), countries: The new yacht has started on her voyage.
To be politically correct, mind the use of “they”, especially in tag-questions: Everyone tried to do their best. If someone wants to spend their money here, it isn’t up to me to stop them.