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For example, examinees with certain types of reading disorders have trouble with both encoding (spelling) and decoding (Lyon, Shaywitz, & Shaywitz, 2003). Compare performance on the Word Reading and Pseudoword Decoding subtests to performance on the Spelling subtest. Evaluate skills analysis results to determine if similar types of errors occur across these subtests. For example, does the individual show a pattern of errors with a particular letter-sound relationship? Are there similar morphological errors (e.g., omission of word su xes)? In the area of mathematics, for example, comparing an examinee’s performance on the Numerical Operations and the Math Problem Solving subtests helps identify whether di culties in math are specific to calculation or the application of math skills to solve problems.

In the area of oral language, two comparisons are important:

1.Compare Listening Comprehension performance to Oral Expression performance. Evaluate whether weaknesses are specific to certain tasks (e.g., expressive vocabulary but not receptive vocabulary) and whether di culties are demonstrated on receptive tasks, expressive tasks, or both.

2.Compare performance in the area of oral language with performance in the area of written language (reading and writing subtests). For example, a student with weaknesses in Reading Comprehension and Listening Comprehension (Oral Discourse Comprehension) requires instruction in language comprehension. In contrast, a student who performs poorly on Reading Comprehension, Oral Reading Fluency, and Word Reading111111111 but demonstrates average performance on Listening Comprehension would likely benefit from instruction in word identification and reading fluency rather than language comprehension. On the other hand, a student who performs poorly on Word Reading may have underlying oral language weaknesses in word retrieval (measured by Oral Word Fluency and Expressive Vocabulary) and vocabulary (measured by Receptive Vocabulary and Expressive Vocabulary) that contribute to a weakness in word identification.

Subtest Floors and Ceilings

When interpreting subtest standard scores, it is important to consider whether there are floor or ceiling limitations. The theoretical standard score range for all subtests is 40 to 160, but not all subtests reach the minimum and maximum standard score.

Floor e ects occur when the lowest possible standard score is 71 or higher, which is less than 2 standard deviations below the mean. Floor e ects may be inevitable for certain subtests due to a restricted score range with any of the subtests. The distributions of certain subtest scores are slightly skewed in the lower ages and grades due to the natural floor that exists before skills are acquired (see the Don’t Forget box). Ceiling e ects occur when the highest possible standard score is 129 or lower, less than 2 standard deviations above the mean. Refer to this book’s online Digital Resources for tables that report by age the lowest and highest possible score for each subtest.

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Don’t Forget

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Subtests With Floor E ects

The lowest possible standard score for the following subtests will be less than 2 standard deviations below the mean (>70) at the lower ages due to the natural floor that exists before skills are acquired:

For example, many examinees in first grade (age 6) are not yet able to write sentences; hence, 6-year-olds who earn a raw score of 0 on the Sentence Composition subtest earn a score of 88, which is less than 1 standard deviation below the mean. This score indicates that 21% of 6-year-olds during standardization also scored 0 on this subtest, so a raw score of 0 is not far below average relative to same-age peers.

Don’t 22222222Forget111111111

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Digital Resources

Tables that summarize the minimum and maximum subtest standard scores available for each WIAT-III subtest are accessible online as digital resources with this book.

Skills Analysis

The WIAT-III provides skills analysis to help practitioners evaluate an examinee’s specific skill strengths and weaknesses and plan targeted interventions. Skills analysis is most useful for evaluating performance on subtests that are normative or relative weaknesses for the examinee, but the WIAT-III skills analysis may also be used to identify skill strengths.

To evaluate a student’s skill strengths and weaknesses on seven of the 16 subtests, the WIAT-III provides both item-level and within-item level skills analysis capabilities. Table 3.8 lists the seven subtests according to the skills analysis method used. For the four subtests with item-level skill classifications, each item is associated with a skill category. When an item is scored as incorrect, an error is marked for the associated skill category. The three subtests that use within-item error classification are assigned one or more error categories according to the examiner’s qualitative analysis of the examinee’s response.

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(Continued)

4.For each selected subtest, either enter skills analysis information or select component areas for providing goal statements, as appropriate. The following image shows the entry screen for Pseudoword Decoding within-item skills analysis.

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5.Select Save and Close, then Generate Report.

6.Select Skills Analysis and/or Goal Statements, and create the score report. After the score report is created, scroll to the end of the report to view the skills analysis summary table and the goal statements. The following image shows an excerpt from the skills analysis summary table for Math Problem Solving.

Math Problem Solving

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(Continued)

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Don’t Forget

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Information Gained From WIAT-III Error Analysis

The concentration of skill deficiencies. Within a subtest, are the weaknesses focused in just a few areas, or are they more pervasive in nature? When analyzing error results across subtests are there areas of common weakness that suggest possible sources of skill difficulties?

The location of skill deficiencies. Where on the skill continuum is the student experiencing the most difficulty? Are the weaknesses in earlier or later sections of the test? For example, math computation weaknesses in addition and subtraction are skills introduced early in the curriculum sequence, whereas weaknesses in multiplication and division might represent a higher-level skill deficiency for the student’s grade level.

The severity of skill deficiencies. Compare the number of errors made in a given skill category with the number of opportunities to make that error type. The percentage of errors made by skill category suggests the severity of skill deficiency.

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C A U T I O N

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Limitations of WIAT-III Skills Analysis

Unlike the KTEA-3 error analysis, the WIAT-III skills analysis may be used with high-performing students who perform above the mean because the skill results are provided as percent correct (rather than as a normative strength, average, or weakness). However, the WIAT-III skills analysis system has some important limitations to keep in mind:

•The WIAT-III was not designed to provide broad coverage of each skill category at each grade level. As a result, the student may have attempted only a few items that measured a particular skill. Follow-up testing with a larger pool of items is recommended to confirm skill strengths and weaknesses.

•Results are reported as percentages. Percentages may exaggerate perceived skill strengths and weaknesses when based on small numbers of items. Use caution when the percentage is based on just a few opportunities to demonstrate the skill.

•Norm-referenced data are not provided, so it may be difficult to determine the percentage of items in a given skill category that a student would be expected to answer correctly for their grade level. Combining skills analysis results with classroom performance and input from teachers is helpful for determining skill weaknesses that warrant intervention. 22222222111111111

Skills Analysis in Reading Comprehension

Items from Reading Comprehension are divided into literal and inferential comprehension. Literal versus inferential comprehension is an important distinction for describing the level of comprehension demands required to respond to an item correctly. Literal comprehension requires recognizing or recalling ideas, information, or events that are explicitly stated in an oral or written text. In contrast, inferential comprehension requires the generation of new ideas from those stated in the text. Students derive inferences from relating di erent concepts presented in the text or combining information with previously acquired knowledge. Sometimes inferences require students to evaluate the writer’s or speaker’s viewpoint. Literal questions do not require the student to go beyond the viewpoints of the writer or speaker and are usually paraphrased portions of the text.

Skills Analysis in Early Reading Skills

Items from Early Reading Skills were designed to measure four skill domains and 12 skill categories, as shown in Rapid Reference 3.9. These skills include naming letters, letter-sound correspondence (phonics), phonological awareness skills such as rhyming, sound matching, and blending, and early reading comprehension skills for

204 ESSENTIALS OF KTEA™-3 AND WIAT®-III ASSESSMENT

matching words with pictures. These skills are important precursors to reading, and teachers can use information about skill weaknesses on the Early Reading Skills subtest to tailor early reading instruction.

Rapid Reference 3.9

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Skill Domains and Categories for Early Reading Skills

Skills Analysis in Math Problem Solving and Numerical Operations

All items from Math Problem Solving and nearly all items from Numerical Operations are associated with one skill category. The only exceptions are items that involve regrouping on Numerical Operations. These items are classified under Regrouping and one other skill category. Math skills are acquired in a mostly hierarchical order, which requires students to master basic concepts before more advanced concepts can be learned. The skills are also listed in the Skills Analysis Worksheets and the score report in a hierarchical order, so it is possible to determine where a student’s skill level falls along a continuum of skill acquisition, or whether the student’s skill acquisition is uneven or spotty across the continuum (Pearson, 2009b, p. 90). The skill domains for both math subtests include Basic Concepts, Algebra, and Geometry, but Numerical Operations also includes Basic Math Operations and Advanced Math whereas Math Problem Solving includes Everyday Applications. However, the specific skills di er across subtests—even for skill domains with the same name.

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Numerical Operations assesses math computation ability with a total of 39 skill categories, which are listed in Rapid Reference 3.10. Math Problem Solving assesses computation and problem solving abilities with a total of 36 skill categories. Performance on Math Problem Solving depends on math computation skill and the ability to apply math skills to solve actual and hypothetical problems. The examinee must discriminate relevant from irrelevant information, identify the correct procedure or operation, and set up the problem correctly.

Rapid Reference 3.10

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Skill Domains and Categories for Math Problem Solving

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(Continued)

Skill Domains and Categories for Numerical Operations

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Skills Analysis in Word Reading, Pseudoword Decoding, and Spelling

The reading of words requires that students connect speech sounds to letter patterns. Three subtests tap this skill in slightly di erent ways. Pseudoword Decoding assesses a student’s ability to apply decoding and structural analysis skills to pseudowords composed of typically occurring letter patterns. Spelling requires students to relate speech sounds that they hear to letter patterns that they write. Word Reading taps a student’s ability to read words with both consistent and inconsistent letter-sound patterns. The skill domains and categories for these three subtests are listed in Rapid Reference 3.11. Although the categories are very similar across these three subtests, a few skill categories di er. Only Spelling includes a Homophone skill category, C-le syllables is used only in Pseudoword Decoding, and C as \sh\ is included only in Word Reading and Pseudoword Decoding.

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Recording verbatim responses is essential for Word Reading and Pseudoword Decoding. In addition to being familiar with how to record students’ responses phonetically, you should be familiar with the error categories before testing, which informs the most pertinent error information to record for error analysis scoring.

Rapid Reference 3.11

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Skill Domains and Categories for Word Reading and Pseudoword Decoding Subtests

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Skill Domains and Categories for Spelling Subtests

Don’t Forget

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Unpredictable Patterns

The KTEA-3 error analysis systems for Letter & Word Recognition, Nonsense Word Decoding, and Spelling include an error category called Unpredictable Patterns, which includes words for which there is inconsistent letter-sound correspondence. These words cannot be read or spelled using a purely phonetic, “sound-it-out” strategy.

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