70 ESSENTIALS OF KTEA™-3 AND WIAT®-III ASSESSMENT

(Mertler, 2002). NCEs are an equal interval scale ranging from 1 to 99 with a mean of 50. NCEs are roughly equivalent to stanines to one decimal place (e.g., a NCE of 36 corresponds to a stanine of 3.6). In addition, NCEs align with percentile ranks only at 1, 50, and 99. At every other point on the scale, NCEs di er from percentile ranks because NCEs are an equal interval scale. For this reason, NCEs can be averaged and otherwise manipulated statistically, which makes them especially useful for analyzing the performance and progress of groups of students. For example, by comparing NCEs once per year, a zero di erence in NCEs indicates 1 year’s growth, a positive di erence indicates more than 1 year’s growth, and a negative di erence indicates less than 1 year’s growth. Remember, NCEs di er from growth scale values (GSVs) in that GSVs are sample-independent and o er greater precision and sensitivity in tracking individual progress over time.

Subtest-by-Subtest Scoring Keys

Most of the items on the KTEA-3 have a simple dichotomous scoring system: 1 point (for correct) or 0 points (for incorrect). However, there are di erences in how raw scores are calculated across the subtests. Regardless of how the raw score is calculated, you need to score the items (at least in a preliminary fashion) as you are testing. This score-as-you-go procedure is necessary so that you know when to discontinue a subtest or when you need to drop back to111111111an earlier start point. We recommend that you double-check the accuracy of each item’s score when you are completely done with the test administration, prior to calculating the raw score. The Caution box lists some common errors in hand scoring. Scoring keys for each of the subtests are listed in the following pages.

C A U T I O N

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Common Errors in Hand Scoring

•Calculating the raw score incorrectly

•Transferring the raw score to the Subtest & Composite Score Computation form incorrectly

•Adding the subtest standard scores incorrectly when calculating the sum for the composite scores

•Using the wrong tables for standard score conversions

•Misreading the norms tables (e.g., using the wrong line or wrong column)

•Subtraction errors in comparing composites and subtest scores

•Errors in conducting the error analysis (e.g., totaling the error columns incorrectly)

KTEA™-3 71

Phonological Awareness

Examiners should not penalize for variations in speech due to regional speech patterns or dialectal variations. For example, when scoring Section 5 (Segmenting), the segmentation of lawnmower may resemble l-aw-n-m-ow-uh in some regions (such as the south) where speakers tend to drop the ending -r from words. Hence, the student may provide a schwa sound for the last phoneme, rather than the -er phoneme. If this is consistent with the student’s dialectal pronunciation, score the response as correct.

When scoring responses from students with articulation di culties, an examiner must be knowledgeable about the student’s di culties, including which specific phonemes he or she has di culty pronouncing and whether the student drops or substitutes phonemes. Score the student’s responses accordingly, accepting dropped or substituted phonemes only where the mispronunciation is consistent with the student’s speech patterns.

In the Rhyming section, a response should be scored as correct if it rhymes with the stimulus word, even if the response is a nonsense word (e.g., if an examinee says “jook rhymes with book”). In the Segmenting section, the student must make a noticeable pause between the word parts to score the response as correct. The Phonological Awareness total raw score is the sum of scores across all sections.

Math Concepts & Applications

Correct responses are listed in the record form and stimulus book; however, numeri-

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cally equivalent responses are also scored as correct. For example, the following three responses are all scored as correct: 3 hours, 15 minutes; 3 1/4 hours; 195 minutes. For most items, the record form lists the most common correct response (e.g., eight thirty), but the stimulus book may list additional, equivalent correct responses (e.g., eight thirty; half past eight). Refer to the stimulus book for additional responses to consider, but remember that these responses are not necessarily exhaustive. If a student provides yet another numerically equivalent response, score the response as correct (e.g., 30 minutes past eight). Improper fractions and responses that are not reduced to their lowest terms are generally acceptable.

Some items are problems requiring calculations with units of measure (e.g., inches, feet, pounds). For most items, omitting the unit of measurement from the response is acceptable. For such items, the fact that the unit of measurement is optional is indicated in the stimulus book by being printed in parentheses. For example, if the correct response is printed as “3 (inches),” then a response of “3” is acceptable. Items that require the unit of measurement will not use parentheses. For example, if the correct response is printed as “84 cents,” then a response of “84” is incorrect.

Some items have multiple questions, and a correct response requires examinees to answer all parts of the question correctly (e.g., Item 28 on Form A).

To calculate the raw score, subtract the number of errors (0 scores) from the ceiling item. An error analysis may be conducted after the test is administered.

72 ESSENTIALS OF KTEA™-3 AND WIAT®-III ASSESSMENT

Letter & Word Recognition

To properly score Letter & Word Recognition, you must have knowledge of the correct pronunciation(s) of each stimulus word. As you look at the pronunciations printed in the record form, listen to the correct pronunciations provided on the Audio files (for Q-interactive users, audio files are provided in the Support tab under Test Materials). Make notes to help you remember the pronunciations as needed. You also need to gain proficiency in recording responses phonetically (either with the phonetic key or sound-by-sound). A bright child or adolescent may rapidly read the six words listed on a stimulus page, and if you struggle with how to record what they say, you will undoubtedly run into trouble with scoring.

Audio recording is highly recommended. Even examiners who are proficient in recording responses phonetically can benefit from using an audio recording device. Whether the student reads fast or slow, it’s helpful to listen to his or her responses again to verify your phonetic transcription and scoring. During subtest administration, the demands of listening, recording, and scoring simultaneously taxes our working memory capacity. Especially when processing demands are high, it’s not uncommon for our sensory system to simplify information or “auto-correct” mistakes. Even when you feel confident in what you’ve recorded, it’s often helpful to listen to the recorded responses to verify.

Some words have multiple correct pronunciations, and the various pronunciations are listed in the record form only (not in111111111 the stimulus book). For example, elegant may be pronounced “EL ih gunt” or “EL uh gent.” Accented syllables are printed in all capital letters, and accenting the correct syllable is required to score the response as correct (e.g., “el uh GENT” would be scored as incorrect). Don’t apply syllable breaks rigidly; for example, the correct pronunciation of guarded is listed as “GAR did,” but “GARD id” would also be scored as correct (the di erence between these pronunciations is very subtle).

Sometimes examinees will sound out a word two or three times (perhaps incorrectly) before they read it smoothly as their final response. Only score the final response, and award credit if the response is correctly pronounced in a relatively smooth manner with the accent properly placed.

A dysfluent or halting pronunciation (e.g., “pl..ease”) should result in a prompt, but only prompt one time per item. If the student was prompted according to the administration instructions to “say it altogether,” but the student still did not pronounce the word as a connected, smooth whole, score the response as incorrect.

If a student’s dialect or regional speech pattern leads to a di erent pronunciation, give credit for an item if it is consistent with the student’s dialect or speech pattern. For example, reading “car” with a Bostonian accent of “caw” would be an acceptable pronunciation in that region. Speakers from England, for example, may pronounce united as “yoo nye tid,” whereas most American speakers say “yoo nye did.” Students whose first language is not English may also have specific pronunciation

KTEA™-3 73

di erences. Make sure you are familiar with the student’s English speech patterns and the specific articulation di erences that he or she exhibits. Do not penalize for articulation di erences that are consistent with the student’s general English speech patterns. For example, a native Spanish speaker’s pronunciation of the word eleven may resemble eleben.

To calculate the raw score, subtract the number of errors (0 scores) from the ceiling item. Skipped items (that could not be read) are scored as incorrect. If you allowed the student to finish reading all items on the stimulus page before discontinuing, as the instructions recommend, do not include items past the discontinue point when summing the total raw score. An error analysis may be conducted after the test is administered. Accurate verbatim transcription or audio recording of the examinee’s responses is crucial if you intend to complete an error analysis.

Math Computation

For most items, correct responses are listed in the record form only (correct responses for the earliest items only are printed in the stimulus book as well). Numerically equivalent responses are also scored as correct. For example, the most common correct response to an item may be 3/4, but .75 is also acceptable. The record form lists numerically equivalent responses that receive credit, but remember that these responses are not necessarily exhaustive. If a student provides yet another numerically equivalent response, score the response as111111111 correct (e.g., accept a response of 6/8 as equivalent to 3/4). Improper fractions and responses that are not reduced to their lowest terms are generally acceptable.

Numeral formation and reversal errors are penalized only on the earliest items (Items 6–9 on Form A), which are designed to assess numeral formation. When handwriting is unclear, you may ask the student to read his or her response to help you decipher what is written. Responses with transposition errors, such as 12 for 21, are scored as incorrect.

Math Computation has a discontinue rule of 4 consecutive 0s. Especially for young children, consider scoring their responses as they finish each problem so that you know when to discontinue the subtest. However, keep in mind that examinees with math anxiety and many older students may feel uncomfortable having someone watch them work. Some students may work better and show more persistence on di cult items if they are not being closely watched. If you believe this to be true, look at your own papers and busy yourself with other tasks while the students are working, glancing up only occasionally to check their progress and quickly score the items they’ve just completed to see if the discontinue rule has been met. For older students who may be able to complete some of the later items, consider giving them more physical space (perhaps move your chair away a bit) and ask them to tell you when they have completed all the items they know how to do. Try to observe a student’s behaviors and strategies unobtrusively (for example, are they subvocalizing or counting on their fingers?).

74 ESSENTIALS OF KTEA™-3 AND WIAT®-III ASSESSMENT

point, do not include those items when summing the total raw score. An error analysis may be conducted after the test is administered.

Nonsense Word Decoding

Do not penalize for misplacing the accent of a nonsense word. This is an important di erence from scoring Letter & Word Recognition. Even though the correct pronunciations printed in the stimulus book and record form include the accent information, a student is not required to place the accent correctly.

Aside from scoring syllable accents, the scoring rules resemble those described for Letter & Word Recognition (refer to the Letter & Word Recognition scoring information provided on an earlier page in this chapter for more explanation).

•Familiarize yourself with the correct pronunciation of the nonsense words on the Audio files (for Q-interactive users, audio files are provided in the Support tab under Test Materials). Don’t apply syllable breaks rigidly; for example, the correct pronunciation of dompest is listed as DOMP ist, but “DOM pist” would also be scored as correct (the di erence between these pronunciations is very subtle). Some words have more than one pronunciation, as shown in the record form.

KTEA™-3 75

•Record student responses phonetically using the phonetic key or sound- by-sound. Audio recording is highly recommended to confirm that the student’s responses were recorded accurately.

•A dysfluent or halting pronunciation (e.g., gl..ux) should result in a prompt, but prompt only one time per item. If the student was prompted according to the administration instructions to “say it altogether,” but the student still did not pronounce the word as a connected, smooth whole, score the response as incorrect.

•Articulation errors resulting from dialectal variations or nonnative English speech patterns are not penalized.

•Correct responses are those in which the student pronounces the word in a connected, relatively smooth whole–even if several attempts are made before pronouncing the word correctly.

To calculate the raw score, subtract the number of errors (items with 0 scores) from the ceiling item. Skipped items (that could not be read) are scored as incorrect. If you allowed the student to finish reading all items on the stimulus page before discontinuing, as the instructions recommend, do not include items past the discontinue point when summing the total raw score. An error analysis may be conducted after the test is administered. Accurate verbatim transcription or audio recording of the examinee’s responses is crucial if you intend to complete an error analysis.

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Writing Fluency

The raw score for Writing Fluency is the number of recognizable (readable) words written by the student within the 5-minute time limit. Performance depends solely on productivity. Disregard errors in letter formation, spelling, capitalization, punctuation, grammar, and syntax. Skipping items is permitted. Count the number of words from the items attempted.

Recognizable words are counted even if they are misspelled or the letters are poorly formed or reversed. If the written response is di cult to read, you may ask the student read his or her response aloud. Listen to what the student reads aloud to help you decipher the written response. Do not score the student’s oral response and do not permit the student to change his or her written response while reading. Scoring is based on the written response only. If the student “reads” something aloud that di ers from what you see represented in writing, score only what you decipher in the written response.

Count the number of words used, regardless of word boundary or spacing errors. For example, if the student separated a word into two or more words, count only one word (e.g., She play ing in the gar den = 5 words). Similarly, if the student combined two or more words into one, count the number of words combined (e.g., the dog drak out uvher bol = 7 words, uvher is scored as of her).

76 ESSENTIALS OF KTEA™-3 AND WIAT®-III ASSESSMENT

Don’t Forget

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Scoring Writing Fluency

Question: Why would a written response that is nonsensical receive credit?

Answer: Writing Fluency was designed as a measure of contextual graphomotor speed and the orthographic loop of working memory. This subtest is not a measure of grammar, syntax, spelling or writing mechanics. Hence, credit may be given to a severely misspelled word or correctly spelled words that form a nonsensical sentence (e.g., cat cat and and). Writing nonsensical responses was extremely rare during standardization. When it occurred, the examinees were typically those with mild intellectual disability and may have known how to spell only a handful of words. Even under these circumstances, the Writing Fluency score provides useful information about graphomotor speed. Quality of response was positively related to writing speed, so examinees who wrote nonsensical sentences earned very low standard scores. If an examinee does not write meaningful sentences on the Writing Fluency subtest, it’s reasonable to also administer a measure of Alphabet Writing Fluency, such as in the WIAT-III, and then compare the examinee’s performance on the contextual and decontextualized task, respectively.

Question: What if the examinee writes incomplete sentences?

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Answer: The sample and practice items are designed to encourage examinees to write simple, complete sentences in response to each picture. However, some students may not understand the concept of a sentence; other students may opt to use a strategy of writing fragments (e.g., cat sleeping; girl playing; etc.) in order to complete more items. The Writing Fluency subtest was not designed as a measure of grammar or syntax, so these errors are not penalized. Moreover, the scoring rules disregard the number of items completed, so the student who writes fragments to complete more items will receive a score comparable to that of a student of similar ability who writes complete sentences for fewer items.

Silent Reading Fluency

The raw score for Silent Reading Fluency is the number of correct responses minus the number of incorrect responses given within the 2-minute time limit. Each item response is either yes or no, which provides a 50–50 chance of guessing the correct response. However, subtracting incorrect responses from the total correct provides a correction for guessing and random responding, and also results in a sti penalty for incorrect responses due to reading errors or di culties.

For hand scoring, use the scoring key provided in the flash drive. The scoring key is a reproducible page, so you can print it out on paper or on transparency film to

KTEA™-3 77

create an overlay. Disregard any skipped or unattempted items—these are not scored as incorrect.

For scoring in Q-global, you don’t need a scoring key. You may enter the student’s responses as y or n into the entry fields for automatic scoring and raw score calculation. If the student skipped an item, leave the response blank.

Math Fluency

The raw score for Math Fluency is the number of correct responses provided within the 1-minute time limit. Disregard any skipped or unattempted items—these are not scored as incorrect. Do not penalize for numeral formation and reversal errors. When handwriting is unclear, you may ask the student to read his or her response to help you decipher what is written. Responses with transposition errors, such as 12 for 21, are scored as incorrect.

For hand scoring, use the scoring key provided in the flash drive. The scoring key is reproducible, which means you are allowed to print out these pages for your personal use and ease of reference.

For scoring in Q-global, you don’t need a scoring key. You may enter the student’s numerical responses into the entry fields for automatic scoring and raw score calculation. If the student skipped an item, leave the response blank.

Reading Comprehension and Listening111111111 Comprehension

Refer to the stimulus book for the most complete list of correct responses. For many items, specific criteria that a response must satisfy in order to be scored correct are listed along with examples. The record form lists abbreviated correct responses for all items except those that elicit lengthy or varied responses. Some responses have optional portions, which are shown in parentheses in the record form and stimulus book. When scoring, do not penalize for poorly worded responses, immature speech, articulation errors, or gross mispronunciations from the text (as long as the word is recognizable).

The early items of these subtests are fairly straightforward to score. The early Reading Comprehension items require a pointing or behavioral response, and the early Listening Comprehension items involve simple sentences and questions.

The later items of Reading Comprehension and Listening Comprehension require passage-level comprehension and involve answering multiple-choice and open-ended questions. The multiple-choice questions are straightforward to score. The open-ended questions generally are not di cult to score because the stimulus book has examples of correct and incorrect answers as well as the general criteria that is necessary for a response to receive credit. In most cases, the reasons behind the decisions regarding correct and incorrect responses are implicitly clear. However, for a handful of Reading Comprehension items (six items from Form A and 7 items

78 ESSENTIALS OF KTEA™-3 AND WIAT®-III ASSESSMENT

from Form B), Chapter 1 of the Scoring Manual provides a helpful explanation for scoring decisions as well as additional examples of correct and incorrect responses. If the examinee’s response includes extraneous information, simply disregard it when scoring. However, if the examinee’s response includes factually incorrect information or information that suggests he or she misunderstood the text, score the response 0 (even if part of the examinee’s response included a correct answer).

Sum the scores obtained within the final item set administered to obtain the raw score. A student who begins at set B and meets the decision point criteria to proceed to set C. If hand scoring, the raw score is then converted to a weighted raw score using a conversion table found in the Technical & Interpretive Manual. In Q-global, enter the final set administered and the raw score; the weighted raw score will be looked up automatically.

C A U T I O N

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Computing the Raw Score for Reading Comprehension and Listening Comprehension

If a student is administered more than one item set, either because they reversed to an

earlier item set or continued on to a more difficult item set after meeting the decision

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point criteria, use caution when computing the raw score. Sum only scores from items within the final item set administered (the item set for which the examinee met the criteria to discontinue or stop). Scores from items above or below the final item set are disregarded—they do not contribute to the final raw score.

The item sets overlap, so pay careful attention when summing scores. The items included in each set are printed next to the item set raw score boxes in the record form. The raw score entered in the box should be the sum of those item scores only.

Which item set should be scored?

Question: A kindergartener answered 17 out of 20 questions correctly on Reading Comprehension set A. The decision point states that if there are three or fewer scores of 0 in a set, continue to the next set. So I started set B, and the student answered the next five questions incorrectly (which triggered the discontinue rule). Should I score the subtest using 0 points on Set B or 17 points on Set A? Set A seems to be a better representation of her ability.

Answer: The child’s performance on Set A provides more information about her reading skills. When an examinee answers all items correctly or incorrectly, it’s more difficult to estimate his or her ability level. The decision point is designed to help examiners find the most appropriate set, but in this case it’s appropriate to use clinical judgment to score set A.

KTEA™-3 79

Don’t Forget

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FAQs: Scores Based on Out-of-Level Item Sets

for Reading Comprehension, Listening Comprehension, and Written Expression

Question: When an examinee is administered an out-of-level item set (one that is higher or lower than the grade appropriate item set), do I use the same norms?

Answer: Yes, the same norms are used for all item sets administered because the subtest raw score is first converted to a “weighted raw score,” which is then converted to a standard score. The weighted raw score adjusts the raw score based on the item set administered, so raw scores based on a more difficult item set are “worth more” than scores based on a less difficult item set.

Question: Is the examinee still compared with same age or grade peers when they take an out-of-level item set?

Answer: Essentially yes. A subset of examinees in the standardization sample were administered the item sets above and below the grade-appropriate item set to allow the item sets to be vertically scaled, or equated, using item response theory (IRT). In doing so, an examinee’s performance on out-of-level item sets may be compared to the way same-age or same22222222-111111111grade peers would perform. However, the farther away the examinee moves from his/her grade-appropriate item set, the more estimation is required. While still considered reliable and valid, scores on item sets three or more levels above or below the grade appropriate item set are more challenging to interpret because the content and skill demands may be quite different from what is expected on grade level. For this reason, it’s best to begin administration at the grade-appropriate item set and move up or down one item set at a time.

Question: If a standard score is based on an out-of-level item set, can I use it in an analysis to identify specific learning disabilities?

Answer: Yes, the score is a valid estimate of the examinee’s skill level in that achievement domain and may be used in analyses to identify specific learning disabilities.

Written Expression

Thorough scoring of the Written Expression subtest must be completed after the test is administered. Detailed item-by-item Written Expression scoring instructions are provided in the Scoring Manual. Each item of this subtest has one or more scoring categories that is scored 1 or 0. The most common categories include task, sentence structure, capitalization, punctuation, grammar, and other mechanical errors. In addition to the specific error categories, you should familiarize yourself with the general scoring guidelines for Written Expression (see the Don’t Forget box for a review of these).

80 ESSENTIALS OF KTEA™-3 AND WIAT®-III ASSESSMENT

Don’t Forget

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General Scoring Guidelines for Written Expression

Error categories are independent. Score each error category independently of the others. Try not to let poor performance in one category influence the scores for other categories in that item.

Structure and grammar errors should be obvious. As a general guideline, score 0 for sentence structure and word form (grammar) if the error is obvious and would stand out in semi-formal writing such as a class paper.

Use judgment to choose best-fitting category. Sometimes a response is clearly erroneous, but it is not immediately evident which category should be scored 0. In those instances, choose the category that in your judgment best fits the error. The overall subtest score will not be affected.

Most often, ignore extra writing. If the task criterion specifies a limited product (e.g., one word or one sentence) and the student produces a response, part of which satisfies this criterion, ignore any additional material the student has written when scoring the task criterion. However, if the task criterion is open-ended (e.g., “one or more sentences”), score according to the entire response. For the

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82 ESSENTIALS OF KTEA™-3 AND WIAT®-III ASSESSMENT

Spelling

Scoring Spelling is straightforward: Score 1 for correctly spelled words and 0 for misspelled words. Poorly formed letters, capitalization, and mixing print with cursive are not penalized.

The key to scoring Spelling is making sure that you know what the examinee intended to write during administration. During administration, carefully watch the examinee spell each item and ask him or her to name any letters that are unclear or ambiguous.

Avoid scoring the examinee’s responses “by eye,” reading through them and looking for misspelled words. This method of scoring is error prone—even if you are a good speller. Errors may include a correct spelling of the wrong word or may closely resemble the correct spelling. To prevent scoring errors, always compare each of the examinee’s responses with the correct spelling printed in the record form.

To calculate the raw score, subtract the number of errors (items with 0 scores) from the ceiling item. Skipped items (those words that the examinee chose not to attempt) are scored as incorrect. An error analysis may be conducted after the subtest is scored.

Object Naming Facility and Letter Naming Facility

For both Object Naming Facility (ONF) and Letter Naming Facility (LNF), the raw score is based on the examinee’s completion time as well as the number of errors made. Scores cannot be obtained if the total number of errors for both trials exceeds 19, which would be extremely rare. Generally,111111111 examinees who make errors are still permitted to score this subtest in order to document a weakness in naming facility and/or retrieval accuracy. Nearly all examinees who lack familiarity with the stimuli will not pass the practice items, which is a prerequisite to administering the test items. However, examinees who have di culty with retrieval, visual tracking, and/or self-monitoring may make errors even though they are familiar with the stimuli. Always consider both the speed and accuracy of performance when reporting and interpreting results.

Audio recording the ONF and LNF subtests is highly recommended to ensure accurate scoring. Examinees may lose their place and begin again, self-correct, or name very rapidly, all of which can make it di cult for an examiner to accurately track, record, and score the responses. For ONF, if an examinee says a synonym, such as kitten for cat or home for house, award credit for these items. For LNF, as a general rule, examinees provide letter names (not letter sounds) on the practice and test items. However, if the examinee mistakenly says the letter sound instead of the letter name for some of the test items, accept these responses as correct.

Naming facility, or rapid automatic naming, is not an academic area that improves with intervention. Rather, naming facility represents a basic processing ability that supports the development of literacy skills. Hence, ONF and LNF are the only subtests for which GSVs are not available. Similarly, because naming facility is not an area of academic achievement, ONF and LNF are the only subtests that cannot be selected as the achievement weakness in the Pattern of Strengths and Weaknesses analysis for the identification of a specific learning disability.

KTEA™-3 83

Reading Vocabulary

A Reading Vocabulary item is scored as correct (1 point) if the examinee says or points to the correct synonym of the target word. Responses of two or more words are scored as incorrect, even if the correct answer is included as one of the words in the response. To calculate the raw score, subtract the number of errors (items with 0 scores) from the ceiling item. Skipped items (those words that the examinee chose not to attempt) are scored as incorrect.

Word Recognition Fluency and Decoding Fluency

Scoring for both the Word Recognition Fluency and Decoding Fluency subtests involves calculating the number of correct items read within the time limit. To calculate the raw score, subtract the number of errors (items with 0 scores) from the ceiling item. Skipped items (those words that the examinee chose not to attempt) are scored as incorrect.

Remember, for the Decoding Fluency subtest only, do not penalize for misplacing the accent of a nonsense word.

Don’t Forget

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Raw Scores of 0 on Word Recognition Fluency

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and Decoding Fluency

Standard scores are not available for raw scores of 0 on WRF and DF, which is a change from the KTEA-II. Examinees who could not read any words correctly were excluded from the norm sample for the following reasons:

1.Improved construct validity: If the examinee’s basic reading skills are not yet developed enough to read any words (or nonsense words), then the subtest score is not meaningful as a measure of fluency for that skill.

2.Improved psychometric properties: The norms for WRF were extended down to grade 1 (from grade 3 in the KTEA-II). A sizable percentage of young children (in grades 1 and 2 for WRF, in grade 3 for DF) earned raw scores of 0 during standardization because they had not yet mastered the basic skills required to recognize words or decode nonsense words, respectively. For WRF in particular, including children with raw scores of 0 in the norm would have lowered the average ability level of the norm group at these lower grades, so that even a low raw score would have resulted in an average or above average score. Including these children in the normative sample would have compared a first grade reader’s performance with a norm group that included first graders who have not yet learned to read and did not perform the task.

By including only children who were able to read at least one word correctly, the WRF and DF norms have good floors and ceilings and reflect fluency skills among children who have acquired at least a very basic level of reading ability.

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84 ESSENTIALS OF KTEA™-3 AND WIAT®-III ASSESSMENT

(Continued)

Question: Why is a raw score of 0 possible for Silent Reading Fluency, but not WRF and DF?

Answer: Two administration and scoring rules differentiate raw scores of 0 obtained on Silent Reading Fluency (SRF) from either WRF or DF. (1) Examinees who respond incorrectly to three or more SRF teaching items are discontinued. This administration rule was designed to exclude those examinees from the norm sample who have not yet learned to read or who read very poorly. (2) Silent Reading Fluency is scored by subtracting the number of incorrect responses from the number of correct responses (in order to correct for guessing). A raw score of 0 may be obtained by examinees who read some items correctly, but also read the same (or more) number of items incorrectly. For any subtest, remember that the same raw score can be obtained for different reasons. We recommend documenting the number of correct and incorrect responses when reporting performance on SRF to indicate if the examinee was fast or slow, accurate or inaccurate.

Oral Expression

General scoring guidelines are provided and summarized in the Don’t Forget box. Audio recording is highly recommended. Even examiners who are proficient in

language transcription can benefit from 111111111using an audio recording device. Whether the examinee speaks fast or slow, it’s helpful to listen to his or her responses again to verify your transcription and scoring. During subtest administration, the simultaneous demands of listening, recording, and scoring are taxing for an examiner’s working memory capacity. To provide more e cient processing of information, it’s not uncommon for our sensory system to simplify information or “auto-correct” grammatical and syntactic mistakes. You may feel confident in what you’ve recorded, but it’s helpful to double-check your perceptions.

Sum the Task and Grammar scores across all items within the final item set administered to obtain the raw score. Be careful: Don’t include scores from items outside the final item set. If hand scoring, the raw score is then converted to a weighted raw score using a conversion table found in the Technical & Interpretive Manual.

Don’t Forget

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General Scoring Guidelines for Oral Expression

Error categories are independent.

Score each error category independently of the others. Try not to let poor performance in one category influence the scores for other categories in that item.

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