- •The verbal categories of voice and mood.
- •The morphological structure of a word. Types of morphemes.
- •A short history of the origins and development of English.
- •Word-composition. Classification of compound words.
- •Phraseological units and their classification.
- •Phonetics means of stylistics.
- •Expressive means of English syntax.
- •The verb as a part of speech. Subclasses of verbs.
- •Noun determiners. The article. The problem of the zero article.
- •Words of native origin and their characteristics
- •Finite and non-finite forms of the verb. The category of finitude.
- •Periodization of the history of the English language.
- •Polysemy. The semantic structure of a polysemantic word.
- •Synonyms. The sources of synonymy.
- •Classifications of English verbs.
- •The morphological structure of a word. Types of morphemes
- •Homonyms. Classification. Origin of homonyms.
- •The verbal categories of voice and mood.
- •Antonyms. Semantic and morphological classifications.
- •Phonetic Expressive Means and Stylistic Devices.
- •Types of word meaning.
- •Free word-groups and their classification.
- •Lexical Expressive Means and Stylistic Devices.
- •Phraseology: Principles of Classification
- •The Interaction of Different Types of Lexical Meaning.
- •General characteristics of language as a functional system.
- •Phraseology: Word-Groups with Transferred Meanings.
- •Affixation.
- •General principles of grammatical analysis
- •The Noun. General characteristics.
- •Conversion.
- •Categorial structure of the word.
- •Composition.
- •Reduplication.
- •General characteristics of the grammatical structure of language.
- •General characteristics of the English verbs
- •4. **Mood:**
- •5. **Voice:**
- •Types of grammatical meaning.
- •Classifications of English verbs
- •Lexical Expressive Means and Stylistic Devices
- •Antonyms. Semantic and morphological classifications.
General characteristics of language as a functional system.
Language is a complex and dynamic system with various characteristics that enable communication. When viewed as a functional system, certain general features emerge that highlight its essential properties.
1. **Arbitrariness:**
- **Definition:** The relationship between linguistic signs (words) and their meanings is arbitrary. There is no inherent connection between the sound or form of a word and its referent.
- **Example:** The word "cat" has no intrinsic connection to the animal it represents; different languages may use different words for the same object.
2. **Duality of Patterning:**
- **Definition:** Language consists of both smaller, meaningless elements (phonemes) and larger, meaningful units (morphemes, words, and sentences). These elements are combined in hierarchical structures.
- **Example:** The phonemes /k/, /æ/, and /t/ in English combine to form the word "cat."
3. **Productivity (Creativity):**
- **Definition:** Language allows speakers to create and understand an infinite number of novel and unique utterances. Speakers can generate new combinations of words and phrases.
- **Example:** Speakers can create sentences they have never heard before, such as "The purple elephant danced gracefully under the moonlight."
4. **Cultural Transmission:**
- **Definition:** Language is learned and passed down from one generation to another within a community. It is a cultural phenomenon shaped by social interactions.
- **Example:** Children acquire language by exposure to the linguistic environment of their community.
5. **Discreteness:**
- **Definition:** Language is composed of distinct units (such as phonemes, morphemes, and words) that can be combined to create meaningful messages.
- **Example:** The words "cat" and "bat" differ by a single phoneme, resulting in a change of meaning.
6. **Displacement:**
- **Definition:** Language allows speakers to talk about things that are not present in the immediate context, including past and future events, abstract concepts, and imaginary scenarios.
- **Example:** Discussing plans for the weekend or describing a fictional story involves displacement.
7. **Conventional Nature:**
- **Definition:** The meaning of words and linguistic structures is agreed upon within a linguistic community. There are conventional rules and norms governing language use.
- **Example:** The word "tree" conventionally refers to a large, woody plant with a trunk, branches, and leaves.
8. **Reflexivity:**
- **Definition:** Language has the ability to refer to itself, allowing speakers to talk about language itself and engage in metalinguistic awareness.
- **Example:** Discussing the meaning of words, grammar rules, or linguistic structures.
9. **Interchangeability:**
- **Definition:** Members of a linguistic community can both produce and understand the same linguistic signs, facilitating communication.
- **Example:** In a conversation, speakers can take turns being the sender and receiver of messages.
10. **Multifunctionality:**
- **Definition:** Language serves multiple functions, including expressing thoughts, conveying emotions, giving commands, asking questions, and establishing social relationships.
- **Example:** Using language for purposes such as informing, persuading, entertaining, or expressing feelings.
These characteristics collectively define language as a functional system, allowing for the rich and diverse communication observed across different human communities. The study of these features provides insights into the structure, use, and evolution of language.