- •The verbal categories of voice and mood.
- •The morphological structure of a word. Types of morphemes.
- •A short history of the origins and development of English.
- •Word-composition. Classification of compound words.
- •Phraseological units and their classification.
- •Phonetics means of stylistics.
- •Expressive means of English syntax.
- •The verb as a part of speech. Subclasses of verbs.
- •Noun determiners. The article. The problem of the zero article.
- •Words of native origin and their characteristics
- •Finite and non-finite forms of the verb. The category of finitude.
- •Periodization of the history of the English language.
- •Polysemy. The semantic structure of a polysemantic word.
- •Synonyms. The sources of synonymy.
- •Classifications of English verbs.
- •The morphological structure of a word. Types of morphemes
- •Homonyms. Classification. Origin of homonyms.
- •The verbal categories of voice and mood.
- •Antonyms. Semantic and morphological classifications.
- •Phonetic Expressive Means and Stylistic Devices.
- •Types of word meaning.
- •Free word-groups and their classification.
- •Lexical Expressive Means and Stylistic Devices.
- •Phraseology: Principles of Classification
- •The Interaction of Different Types of Lexical Meaning.
- •General characteristics of language as a functional system.
- •Phraseology: Word-Groups with Transferred Meanings.
- •Affixation.
- •General principles of grammatical analysis
- •The Noun. General characteristics.
- •Conversion.
- •Categorial structure of the word.
- •Composition.
- •Reduplication.
- •General characteristics of the grammatical structure of language.
- •General characteristics of the English verbs
- •4. **Mood:**
- •5. **Voice:**
- •Types of grammatical meaning.
- •Classifications of English verbs
- •Lexical Expressive Means and Stylistic Devices
- •Antonyms. Semantic and morphological classifications.
Lexical Expressive Means and Stylistic Devices.
**Lexical Expressive Means and Stylistic Devices:**
### Lexical Expressive Means:
1. **Word Choice:**
- Selecting specific words to convey the desired meaning or evoke particular emotions.
- Example: "The old man wept" vs. "The elderly gentleman shed tears."
2. **Denotation and Connotation:**
- Utilizing the literal (denotative) and associated/emotional (connotative) meanings of words.
- Example: "Home" (denotative: a place where one lives; connotative: a symbol of comfort and belonging).
3. **Figurative Language:**
- Using metaphors, similes, personification, etc., to add depth and vividness.
- Example: "Time is a thief."
4. **Neologism:**
- Introducing new words or expressions.
- Example: "Selfie" (a term that gained popularity with the rise of smartphone photography).
5. **Word Play:**
- Employing puns, double entendre, or other forms of linguistic humor.
- Example: "I used to be a baker because I kneaded dough."
### Stylistic Devices:
1. **Metaphor:**
- Establishing a direct comparison between two unrelated things.
- Example: "The world is a stage."
2. **Simile:**
- Making a comparison using "like" or "as."
- Example: "As brave as a lion."
3. **Personification:**
- Attributing human characteristics to non-human entities.
- Example: "The wind whispered through the trees."
4. **Hyperbole:**
- Exaggerating for emphasis or effect.
- Example: "I've told you a million times."
5. **Litotes:**
- Understatement for rhetorical effect.
- Example: "Not bad" instead of "good."
6. **Oxymoron:**
- Combining contradictory terms for a paradoxical effect.
- Example: "Deafening silence."
7. **Antithesis:**
- Juxtaposing contrasting ideas in a balanced structure.
- Example: "To err is human; to forgive, divine."
8. **Irony:**
- Expressing the opposite of what is meant, often for humorous or emphatic effect.
- Example: "The dinner party was a complete disaster" when it was actually enjoyable.
9. **Allusion:**
- Making indirect references to literature, history, or culture.
- Example: "She had the wisdom of Solomon."
10. **Euphemism:**
- Substituting a milder or more indirect expression for a harsh or blunt one.
- Example: "Passed away" instead of "died."
These expressive means and stylistic devices contribute to the richness and artistry of language, allowing writers and speakers to convey ideas with greater impact and engage their audience on various levels.
Phraseology: Principles of Classification
Phraseology refers to the study of phrases, which are combinations of two or more words that function as a single unit in a sentence. In linguistic terms, phrases can be classified based on various principles.
1. **Structural Classification:**
- **Nominal Phrases (NPs):** Consist of a noun and its modifiers.
- **Verbal Phrases (VPs):** Comprise a verb and its associated elements.
- **Adjectival Phrases (APs):** Include an adjective and any modifiers.
- **Adverbial Phrases (AdvPs):** Consist of an adverb and its modifiers.
2. **Syntactic Classification:**
- **Simple Phrases:** Contain only one main word (e.g., a noun or a verb).
- **Complex Phrases:** Include more than one main word and may have subordinate elements.
3. **Semantic Classification:**
- **Noun Phrases (NPs):** Emphasize the role of nouns and their modifiers.
- **Verb Phrases (VPs):** Focus on the actions or states expressed by verbs.
- **Prepositional Phrases (PPs):** Involve prepositions and their objects.
- **Adjective Phrases (APs):** Concentrate on the attributes or qualities of nouns.
4. **Functional Classification:**
- **Subject Phrases:** Serve as the subject of a sentence.
- **Object Phrases:** Function as the direct or indirect object of a verb.
- **Modifier Phrases:** Provide additional information or description.
5. **Idiomatic Classification:**
- **Fixed Phrases:** Have a set and unchangeable word order (e.g., "kick the bucket").
- **Free Phrases:** Allow more flexibility in word order and structure.
6. **Frequency-based Classification:**
- **Common Phrases:** Frequently used and familiar expressions.
- **Rare Phrases:** Infrequently encountered combinations of words.
7. **Collocational Classification:**
- **Collocations:** Phrases where certain words tend to co-occur due to linguistic or cultural conventions.
8. **Functional-Communicative Classification:**
- **Declarative Phrases:** Make statements.
- **Interrogative Phrases:** Pose questions.
- **Imperative Phrases:** Give commands or requests.
- **Exclamatory Phrases:** Express strong emotions or exclamations.
Understanding these principles helps linguists and language learners analyze and categorize phrases based on their structural, syntactic, semantic, and functional characteristics. It also aids in identifying patterns and nuances in the use of phrases within a language.