- •The verbal categories of voice and mood.
- •The morphological structure of a word. Types of morphemes.
- •A short history of the origins and development of English.
- •Word-composition. Classification of compound words.
- •Phraseological units and their classification.
- •Phonetics means of stylistics.
- •Expressive means of English syntax.
- •The verb as a part of speech. Subclasses of verbs.
- •Noun determiners. The article. The problem of the zero article.
- •Words of native origin and their characteristics
- •Finite and non-finite forms of the verb. The category of finitude.
- •Periodization of the history of the English language.
- •Polysemy. The semantic structure of a polysemantic word.
- •Synonyms. The sources of synonymy.
- •Classifications of English verbs.
- •The morphological structure of a word. Types of morphemes
- •Homonyms. Classification. Origin of homonyms.
- •The verbal categories of voice and mood.
- •Antonyms. Semantic and morphological classifications.
- •Phonetic Expressive Means and Stylistic Devices.
- •Types of word meaning.
- •Free word-groups and their classification.
- •Lexical Expressive Means and Stylistic Devices.
- •Phraseology: Principles of Classification
- •The Interaction of Different Types of Lexical Meaning.
- •General characteristics of language as a functional system.
- •Phraseology: Word-Groups with Transferred Meanings.
- •Affixation.
- •General principles of grammatical analysis
- •The Noun. General characteristics.
- •Conversion.
- •Categorial structure of the word.
- •Composition.
- •Reduplication.
- •General characteristics of the grammatical structure of language.
- •General characteristics of the English verbs
- •4. **Mood:**
- •5. **Voice:**
- •Types of grammatical meaning.
- •Classifications of English verbs
- •Lexical Expressive Means and Stylistic Devices
- •Antonyms. Semantic and morphological classifications.
Homonyms. Classification. Origin of homonyms.
Homonyms are words that share the same spelling or pronunciation but have different meanings. They can create confusion in language and are a common linguistic phenomenon. Homonyms can be classified into two main types: homophones and homographs.
### 1. Homophones:
- **Definition:** Homophones are words that have the same pronunciation but different meanings and may or may not have the same spelling.
- **Examples:**
- "bare" (without covering) and "bear" (the animal).
- "flour" (used in baking) and "flower" (a blooming plant).
- "write" (to inscribe with characters) and "right" (opposite of left).
### 2. Homographs:
- **Definition:** Homographs are words that share the same spelling but may have different pronunciations and meanings.
- **Examples:**
- "lead" (to guide or direct) and "lead" (a heavy metal).
- "tear" (to rip) and "tear" (a drop of saline fluid from the eye).
- "row" (a line of things) and "row" (to propel a boat with oars).
### Origin of Homonyms:
1. **Historical Change:**
- Over time, the meanings and pronunciations of words can change, leading to the development of homonyms. Historical shifts in language contribute to the creation of homonyms.
2. **Borrowing from Other Languages:**
- Words borrowed from different languages may have similar spellings or pronunciations but distinct meanings. The adoption of loanwords contributes to homonymy.
3. **Polysemy and Specialization:**
- Homonyms can arise through polysemy, where a word acquires multiple related meanings. Over time, these meanings may become distinct and develop into separate homonyms.
4. **Phonological Changes:**
- Sound changes in language can lead to the creation of homophones. Words that once had different pronunciations may become homophones due to phonological shifts.
5. **Word Formation Processes:**
- Word formation processes, such as derivation and compounding, can contribute to the development of homonyms. For example, affixes may be added to a base word, creating a new word with a distinct meaning.
6. **Semantic Shifts:**
- Semantic shifts can result in the emergence of homonyms. A word's meaning may undergo changes, leading to the coexistence of multiple meanings with the same spelling or pronunciation.
Understanding homonyms is crucial for effective communication, as misinterpretations can occur if the intended meaning is unclear. Context becomes essential in distinguishing between homonyms, allowing speakers and listeners to navigate potential ambiguity.
The verbal categories of voice and mood.
### Verbal Categories: Voice and Mood
**1. Voice:**
- **Definition:** Voice in grammar refers to the form or structure of a verb that indicates the relationship between the subject and the action or state expressed by the verb. There are two primary voices: active voice and passive voice.
- **Active Voice:**
- In the active voice, the subject of the sentence performs the action. The structure is straightforward, with the subject followed by the verb and then the object (if present).
- **Example:** "The cat (subject) chased (verb) the mouse (object)."
- **Passive Voice:**
- In the passive voice, the focus is on the action and the receiver of the action rather than the doer. The object of the active sentence becomes the subject in the passive sentence.
- **Example:** "The mouse (subject) was chased (verb) by the cat (agent)."
**2. Mood:**
- **Definition:** Mood in grammar reflects the speaker's attitude or the mode of the verb in relation to reality. The three primary moods in English are indicative, imperative, and subjunctive.
- **Indicative Mood:**
- Used to make statements, ask questions, or express certainty and reality. Most common sentences are in the indicative mood.
- **Example:** "She sings beautifully."
- **Imperative Mood:**
- Used to give commands, make requests, or offer invitations. The subject (usually "you") is often implied rather than stated.
- **Example:** "Close the door."
- **Subjunctive Mood:**
- Used to express hypothetical or unreal situations, wishes, suggestions, or recommendations. It often appears in specific sentence structures.
- **Example:** "I wish he were here." (Note the use of "were" instead of "was" in the subjunctive mood.)
### Relationship between Voice and Mood:
- **Overlap:** While voice and mood are distinct categories, there can be some overlap. The indicative mood is commonly associated with both active and passive voices, while the subjunctive mood is often used in the passive voice.
- **Effect on Sentence Structure:** Changes in voice and mood can impact the overall structure and meaning of a sentence. For example, shifting from active to passive voice or using the subjunctive mood can alter the tone and emphasis of a statement.
Understanding voice and mood is essential for constructing grammatically correct and contextually appropriate sentences. These categories contribute to the precision and clarity of communication in various linguistic contexts.