How psychology works the facts visually explained (DK) (Z-Library)

Talent selection

The ability to attract and retain the right people helps to make an organization great. If employees are well matched to their positions, they are more likely to be excited by what they are doing and the environment in

which they are working. Talent selection involves a set of procedures to determine how well job applicants

fit the job requirements. These are used alongside a standard job application, which asks questions about education, job skills, characteristics, and work history.

Assessment types

Five main techniques are commonly used for evaluating candidates, and often several of these are used together. These procedures reveal an applicant’s strengths and weaknesses in different areas, giving an organization valuable information about how a person might perform once employed.

WORK SAMPLE

A work sample is a simulation in which candidates perform part of a job, showing how well they can do relevant tasks under standardized conditions. They receive the necessary materials and tools, and instructions on how to complete the task. Work samples are good predictors of future performance because of the similarities between the assessment situation and the job.

BIOGRAPHICAL

INFORMATION

A biographical questionnaire asks for information about relevant prior professional and educational experiences. The questions are more detailed than those in a standard job application, and may include questions about specific experiences at school or work. There may also be questions about verifiable facts and subjective experiences.

INTERVIEW

The candidate’s answers and behavior in an interview both provide important information about their suitability for the job, as well as their ability to communicate and relate. Even eye contact or the firmness of a handshake can affect ratings. Most organizations use interviews because they allow candidates to give detailed responses and indicate their interpersonal skills.

ASSESSMENT CENTERS

In an assessment center, exercises and task simulations are used to measure how well a person can perform the job. Exercises are varied and can take several days to complete. Assessment centers evaluate candidates on the basis of oral and written communication, problem-solving, interpersonal relations, and planning. Candidates are scored on various dimensions and then given an overall score, which is useful for hiring decisions.

PSYCHOMETRIC TESTS

Candidates are often asked to take psychometric tests (pp.246– 247) under controlled conditions, involving problem-solving, answering questions, or tests of manual dexterity. They can evaluate personality, cognitive ability, knowledge and skills, emotional intelligence, or vocational interests. Questions can be closed-ended, with several possible responses to choose from,

or open-ended, in which test takers must generate their own responses.

INTERVIEW

RELIABILITY

Psychologists have found that interview accuracy is subject to the biases of the interviewer. Race, gender, and likability can all affect interview assessments and hiring decisions. Interviewers should:

Be trained to conduct interviews.Ask standardized questions.

Not evaluate the candidate until after the interview has ended.

Rate candidates on individual elements, such as qualifications.

Motivation

Often concerned with the desire to achieve a specific goal, motivation is an internal state that drives a person to carry out particular behaviors or tasks. People are motivated by many different things at work, including acquiring money, benefiting a social cause, and winning admiration. Employee motivation has been shown to be directly correlated with job satisfaction and job performance, and indirectly correlated with organizational success. If a person has the appropriate skill set, high levels of motivation generally lead to great performance at work, and this is essential to meeting an organization’s major goals.

Psychological theories of work motivation are concerned with the reasons why some people are motivated to perform their jobs better

than others, and they allow management to see what they need to provide to maximize motivation and

HAVING A CAREER PATH is more likely to motivate an employee to perform well due to feeling their efforts will be rewarded.

performance. Need hierarchy theories hold that a person’s behavior is directed toward fulfilling their needs, and that their motivation is generated internally. Reinforcement theory assumes that behavior arises from the desire to earn rewards and reinforcements, and so is generated externally. Self-efficacy theory examines how people’s belief in their own abilities can affect performance, and goal-setting theory explains how people’s goals and the ways in which they are set can affect their motivation and performance.

OVERCOMING RATING BIASES AND ERRORS

Human judgment is imperfect, and when supervisors make performance ratings, they often unintentionally exhibit biases and errors. Studies have found that ratings can be affected by how well a supervisor knows and likes an employee, by the employee’s overall mood, and by cultural and racial factors. Supervisors can also be subject to the halo effect, in which they give an individual the same rating across all appraisal dimensions, as well as the distributional error, in which they give the same ratings across all their supervisees. To overcome these problems, organizations can give supervisors rater training designed to show them the typical errors to avoid. In 360-degree feedback, more than one person rates an employee, to reduce the effects of individual biases.

60%

of employees would like their work

to be praised more often

How it works

Teamwork offers the advantages of group performance, which is often better than individual performance because the strengths of every team member combine to create something more effective than can be achieved alone. In a successful team—a group of surgeons performing a complex operation, for example—the actions of every

member are coordinated and oriented toward achieving a common goal. Each member has a specific role, but all members are interdependent, relying on each other to perform their jobs well. This level of cooperation requires trust, which can be built through good communication, competence, commitment, and collaboration. However, not all teams perform as

well as they should, an outcome that is called process loss. This may occur due to social loafing, when people expend less effort as part of a team than they would if working alone (pp.240−241), and impaired brainstorming, when a group generates fewer ideas than are produced by the same

number of people on their own.

KEY CONCEPTS

FOR TEAMS

Role Every team member has a distinctive and discrete job within the team.

Norms Certain unwritten rules of behavior (such as how late people work) are accepted by team members and strongly affect individual behavior.

Group cohesiveness A sense of unity and trust, among other variables, brings team members together and enables them to continue working together.

Team commitment An individual’s acceptance of team goals and willingness to work hard reflect the strength of their involvement with the team.

Mental model A good team has a shared understanding about the task, equipment, and situation.

Team conflict Whether teams are cooperative or competitive as they attempt to deal with clashes determines how effective they are.

GROUPTHINK

When people work together in groups, their decision-making process can be compromised by groupthink, a phenomenon in which groups make decisions that individual members know are bad. Groupthink is likely to occur in highly cohesive groups with strong leaders and a strong pressure to conform. People put aside their own perceptions and rationalize their doubts in order to fit in with other members. If the group is isolated from outside influences, and no one in the room is willing to challenge the leader, the chance of groupthink increases. To prevent this, leaders should act as impartial moderators in group meetings.

On arrival, the birds scatter in search of food.

5−9

is the ideal number of members for a successful team

5. Adjourning

As a project nears completion, the team conducts an assessment of its work, celebrating successes and seeing what can be improved. Team members say goodbye and go on to new projects.

Types of leader

Leaders influence the attitudes, beliefs, behaviors, and feelings of other people, and their leadership style forms the basis of team dynamics. There are two main types of leader in the workplace: formal leaders who occupy supervisory roles, and informal leaders—often the more influential type—who emerge from groups through interactions with colleagues.

Informal leaders can possess expert power, based on perceived expertise, and referent power, which is granted because subordinates like and identify with the leader. Formal leaders may have additional types of powers. Legitimate power is inherent in a supervisor’s job title, while reward power allows leaders to praise employees and grant pay increases and promotions. When leaders discipline employees through salary reduction or firing, they are using coercive power.

Good leaders use power appropriately, showing concern for the welfare of subordinates, and providing structure by setting clear expectations. They can be identified by psychologists and companies using the trait approach (pp.150–151) (specific traits make them natural leaders), the leader emergence approach (they are singled out from within groups for their leadership potential), or the leader behavior approach (what matters is not who they are, but what they do).

Path-goal theory

Developed by Robert House, this model is designed to help supervisors enhance their employees’ job performance by making it easier for them to complete tasks and achieve goals. Leaders can adopt one of four different styles to match the employee, the environment, and the goal.

SETTING A CHALLENGE

Achievement-oriented leadership is the best approach for highperforming subordinates facing complex tasks.

Achievement

Achievement-oriented leaders set challenging goals, and both demonstrate and expect high standards. They show faith in their subordinates.

Fostering a sense of belonging

People spend a lot of time at work, so need to feel connected to the organization and to coworkers in order to improve emotional well-being and productivity.

Openness to new ideas

Progress requires innovation and a willingness to solve problems. A leader who is open to new ideas creates an environment in which progress is possible.

Nurturing growth

People are most motivated when they are encouraged to develop. Leaders who commit to fostering growth end up with more motivated and

loyal employees.

Supportive

Supportive leadership is characterized by considering employees’ needs, showing concern, and creating an encouraging work environment.

HAND-HOLDING

Supportive leadership is the best approach when the task is dangerous, tedious, stressful, or boring.

“The key to successful leadership today is influence, not authority.”

Ken Blanchard, American management expert

ASKING ADVICE

Participative leadership is the best approach to use when advice from experienced subordinates

is needed.

Participative

Participative leaders consult with subordinates, and take their ideas and suggestions into account when making decisions.

TRANSFORMATIONAL LEADERSHIP

Some leaders are unusually effective at motivating others to join a cause, adopt a set of goals, and work persistently toward high achievement. These leaders are charismatic and capable of great influence. They inspire others with their creativity, power, innovative spirit, trustworthiness, and shared vision. They earn trust by prioritizing employees’ development and well-being, and in this way, they build

a loyal, motivated, and high-performing team. As with political leaders and activists such as Martin Luther King Jr., charisma and vision are important qualities that an individual needs to become a transformational leader.

Culture

Organizational culture is how employees make sense of their workplace and one another, and it contributes to the organization’s unique social and psychological environment. Culture is defined by the values and rituals that unite work teams, and by consistent

and observable patterns of behavior. It encompasses the organization’s norms, systems, language, assumptions, visions, and beliefs, and directly influences how organizations treat people, make

decisions, and ensure commitment to projects. Culture is also shaped by leadership, and the incentive and compensation structures that are in place.

Organizational change is not easy to implement because of people’s ties to culture, but it becomes necessary when existing structures and processes no longer effectively meet requirements or achieve goals. Attachments to psychological contracts (the unspoken expectations of employees) can also cause resistance to change because it remolds these expectations.

1. Evaluate

Carrying out an evaluation of the organization’s current status is the first step toward change. This will help determine which systems and processes are not performing well, and so establish the main areas for improvement.

2. Assess

An assessment will examine the overall scope of the change, such as how many employees will be affected, as well as the type of change that is needed. Success relies on the participation of the people whose daily work lives will change.

THE PROBLEM

Assessment is vital in planning change. A new bridge must be strong enough to withstand both the river and the traffic.

TOOLS

The right tools are needed to build a new structure. Training programs, financial incentives, and even threats can be used to get employees to cooperate.

3. Design

A structure that meets the requirements of the organization’s new strategies and goals will be designed. This design will identify key activities, create new departments, and establish interdepartmental relationships.

PROCESS

It takes time to design a new structure, and change does not happen all at once. The process takes place in several stages, usually with the help of an external change agent.

5. Manage change

Leaders should be attuned to how employees react to change, addressing issues as they arise and assessing how successful implementation has been.

4. Implement

Applying change in stages will make the transition smoother for employees who will often resist change. An organization should communicate well and make people feel involved so that the new ways of operating will eventually become accepted.

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AFTER CHANGE

Managers should assess continually how well a new structure is working, and make repairs as necessary.

GUIDELINES TO FACILITATE CHANGE

Various steps can be taken to help employees cope with organizational change.

Strong leadership Managers should show their support for the change to bolster the enthusiasm of subordinates.

Employee involvement

Members of staff should be included in the decision process to feel a greater sense of ownership.

Communication The specific nature of the change should be communicated in a systematic and structured way, as should its implementation and timeline.

Celebration Every success should be celebrated throughout the process to build positivity.

NEED TO KNOW

Kaizen A common organizational goal is to establish kaizen, a system that originated in Japan, in which continuous improvement is possible. Employees at all levels are asked on a daily basis to suggest improvements, the aim being to get rid of unnecessary tasks and increase productivity.

HFE in practice

On a practical level, HFE psychologists use their knowledge of how people interact with machines to design more effective work practices and products. This entails studying how a person’s mind, reflexes, vision, and other senses function in particular settings, from the factory floor to

a hospital operating theater. By studying people’s workplace behaviors, HFE psychologists can advise business decision-makers, industrialists, and governments on strategies for avoiding accidents and enhancing productivity.

One key application of this psychology is commercial aviation, an industry that has been using HFE since the 1960s to improve airline safety statistics. Eliminating mortality due to human error in hospitals is another focus, as

is reducing risk in critical operations such as the supply of nuclear power. Even the humble bicycle has benefited, becoming faster, easier to use, and more comfortable thanks to HFE psychology.