Учебное пособие (Методичка) по Истории Медицины. И.Ю.Худоногов

possibility of spontaneous origin of life (microorganisms), established and eliminated the cause of diseases of wine and beer (the method was later called “pasteurization”), silkworms, laid the foundations of ideas about artificial immunity (for example, chicken cholera), created the vaccine against anthrax. This scientist’s greatest merit is the creation of a rabies vaccine - a disease with 100% lethal outcome - based on a new method of preparing the vaccine, which is now called “attenuation”, i.e. weakening of the virulence of a living culture of microorganisms while maintaining immunogenicity. In 1885, the first anti-rabies station in the world was opened in Paris. In Russia in 1886, 5 such stations were organized, which they began to call Pasteur, R. Koch was the first to propose a method for growing pure bacterial cultures on solid nutrient media, discovered pathogens of tuberculosis (Koch's wand), cholera, cattle plague, sleeping sickness, received the bacterial drug tuberculin (used for diagnostic purposes), and finally established the etiology of anthrax. For research and discoveries in the field of tuberculosis, R. Koch was awarded Nobel Prize (1905). Based on the achievements of microbiology, disciplines are distinguished: virology and immunology. The foundations of virology were laid by Dmitry Iosifovich Ivanovsky (1864-1920), proved in the work “Mosaic Tobacco Disease” (1892) the existence of pathogens of plants that are invisible in ordinary optical microscopes. Continued research in the field of virology Nikolai Fedorovich Gamaleya (1859-1949). The largest Russian biologist, pathologist, bacteriologist Ilya Ilyich Mechnikov (1845-1916) was the founder of immunology. He is the creator of the phagocytic theory of immunity, one of the founders of evolutionary embryology. In 1908, I.I. Mechnikov, along with P. Erlich – the creator of the humoral theory of immunity, was awarded the Nobel Prize.

Questions for self-control:

1.What are the main stages of development of capitalism in Western Europe?

2.What branches of natural science developed most intensively under capitalism and why?

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3.What is the meaning of the Lomonosov-Lavoisier law from the point of view of the creation of the material world?

4.Who took part in the creation of the cellular theory of life, what basic provisions of the cellular theory contradict the hypothesis of the origin of life?

5.How to explain the diversity of the organic world, if all organisms originated from one cell?

6.What is an evolutionary theory, who is its authors, and what artifacts of the surrounding material world suggested to scientists the main provisions of this theory?

7.What contribution did Jean Baptiste Lamarck make to the development of natural science?

8.What contribution did Karl Linnaeus make to the development of natural science, why was he opposed to the theory of evolution, and what phenomena of the surrounding material world had been strengthened his position?

9.What is dramatic medicine, how can you explain the meaning of self-destructive

actions of doctors?

10.What do the Gregor Mendel laws established, the foundations of what modern science did he lay, and what new concepts did he formulate?

11.Who was the inventor of x-rays, how did this discovery come about, and what are the uses of x-rays in medicine today?

12.What great scientist opened the first Department of Physiology at the University of Paris, and what contribution did he make to science?

13.What was the reason for the creation of experimental medicine, and why its first steps were directed towards the study of sugar metabolism in the body and the role of the liver?

14.Who is Rudolf Virchow, and what was the main idea of his theory of pathology?

15.Why did criticism of Virkhov's theory come mainly from Russian doctors and scientists?

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16.Who is the founder of pathological physiology in Russia, what is his brief biography, and what connects him with the Don region?

17.How did the discovery of the percussion method come about, who was the first author of the method, and what life situation prompted him to this discovery?

18.What was the reason for the rediscovery of the percussion method, who became the second author of the discovery, his brief biography and contribution to medicine?

19.Who was the inventor of the stethoscope, in what situation did it happen, and how widely have they been used, and will they be used in medicine in future?

20.How did the methods of pain relief evolve on the scale of the entire historical path of world medicine?

21.What domestic surgical operations under anesthesia were the first, who were the authors of these techniques, and what analgesic substances and ways of their

administration were used?

22.Why did many surgeons prevent the introduction of anesthesia?

23.For what reasons and in what ways were surgical patients fixed before the

invention of anesthesia?

24.What circumstances helped N.I. Pirogov to perfect the technology of ether anesthesia?

25.What stages of ether anesthesia does the patient go through, and why are they dangerous?

26.How was chloroform anesthesia discovered?

27.What is therapeutic nihilism, how is it dangerous for the medical community?

28.Why did obstetricians in Vienna resist the introduction of Semmelweis asepsis?

29.What are the causes of high mortality in “childbirth fever”, and how did Semmelweis establishe its?

30.How to assess the contribution of Semmelweis to the prevention of “childbirth fever”?

31.What is the difference between asepsis and antisepsis?

32.What had to connect Pirogov with Billroth?

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33.Where and when did the first start to remove the appendix, what was the original attitude of surgeons to this organ?

34.Who, and why, are considered the founders of world microbiology?

35.Who, and why, is considered the first Russian microbiologist?

36.How, by whom and why the causative agent of tuberculosis was discovered?

37.How, by whom and why was the causative agent of cholera discovered in Europe?

38.How, by whom and why was the causative agent of cholera discovered in Russia?

39.How did different scientists answer the question about the possibility of spontaneous generation of life on Earth?

40.What contribution did Louis Pasteur make to the French economy?

41. What is the most famous Pasteur vaccine, how did he create it?

42. What new sciences have emerged from microbiology in the process of its

44.What contribution did Dmitry Iosifovich Ivanovsky make to microbiology?

45.What contribution to microbiology did Zinaida Vissarionovna Ermolyeva?

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Theme 7. Medicine in Russia (IX – XVII centuries).

Medicine in the Old Russian State (IX-XV centuries)

According to DNA Geneology Slavic peoples as an independent ethnic group stood at the origins of Indo-European civilization 4-5 thousand years ago. The surviving written sources began to describe the history of the Slavs in the VI-IX centuries of our era. The beginning of Russian culture lies in the deep, centuriesold historical past of East Slavic peoples. The ethnocultural identity of the Eastern Slavs was formed thanks to the Antian tribes and the active participation of the Slavs in campaigns against Byzantium.

The oldest known state of the Eastern Slavs with a center in Kiev took shape in the first half of the 9th century. By this time, the foundations of feudal relations began to be laid in Russia. The origins of the culture of Kievan Rus are connected with the folk culture of the Slavic tribes, which reached a high level and harmonized with the new statehood, and then enriched by Byzantine cultural content.

Moreover, as early as the 1st millennium BC state, – Scythia arose from large tribal unions in the south of the European part of Rus. In the Scythians, the most ancient settlers on the territory our country, it was noted the high development of medical methods for that time and deep knowledge in the field of healing. Greek historians of the 5th century BC – contemporaries of Hippocrates – wrote that doctors from Scythia enjoyed high authority in Greece. The medical skills and knowledge of the Scythians were further developed by the Slavs. Already in the most ancient sources, the presence in Rus of empirical physicians was noted, having accumulated their own experience of healing, preserving the experience of previous generations and creating dynasties of folk healers in family medical schools.

With the advent of feudal class society in Rus, religion began to exert an increasing influence on healing and medicine: the functions of the healers turned out to be largely part in the competence of the "volkhvy" (so they called fortune-tellers, sorcerers and healers before the 17th century), and with the transition to Christianity – in the competence of the priests. Since that time, it has been the

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simultaneous coexistence of two types of healers: a secular folk healer-empiricist (magician) and a priest healer (Christian), who, however, never completely replaced the secular folk healer.

It was characterized for secular healers to have narrow specialization. Having empirically learned a certain range of treatment methods for some diseases, in their practice they limited themselves to these methods. There were many kinds of folk healers in Russia: chiropractors, specialists “ochnye” (oftalmologistas) (especially for removal, more precisely, extrusion of trachomatous grains), “kil'nye” (for the treatment of hernias), “kamnesechentsy” (Lithotomy), “kamchuzhnye” (for the treatment of aches, rheumatism), “chechuynye” (for the treatment of hemorrhoids), “chepuchinnye” (for the treatment of sexually transmitted diseases), midwives, grandmothers-healers of children, etc. Such a division of physicians according to their specialties dates back to a later period Muscovite Russia - however, it originated much earlier. From these empirical healers the first military healers were recruited serving the prince's squads and, above all, the princes themselves.

The surviving written sources indicate the existence of state formations among the East Slavic tribes since the VI century. Information about the people and the state - Ros (Rus), located in the middle Dnieper region, dates from the VI-VIII centuries, and in the VIII-IX centuries the Eastern Slavs build new cities on the Russian Plain, which indicates the rapid development of craft and trade (Kiev, Smolensk, Pskov, Izborsk, Polotsk, Chernihiv, etc.).

The history of healing in Russia is divided into four stages:

1.The healing of the ancient Slavic period (VI century BC – IX century BC).

2.Healing and medicine in Ancient Rus (end of IX - middle of XIII century).

3.Medicine of the period of the Golden Horde and the subsequent strengthening of Russian statehood (mid - 13th - end of the 15th centuries).

4.Medicine of the Moscow state (XV-XVII centuries).

First stage: The ancient Slavic culture has come down to us, being transformed by the tribes of Drevlyans, Severyane (Northerners), Krivichis, Vyatichi, Scythians and others. So, it contains information about Scythian healers, the effectiveness of

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their potions and antidotes, the cultivation of medicinal plants in special gardens, therapeutic healing methods and surgical treatment of wounds and injuries. Scythian medicine was known outside Scythia and was highly valued in ancient states - Ancient Greece and Ancient Rome, as well as in other countries.

Second stage: The adoption of Christianity in Rus contributed to the establishment and development of economic and cultural relations of Kievan Rus with Byzantium and other countries.

A large place in these cultural ties belonged to the Slavic people – the Bulgarians. The linguistic and written community with them greatly contributed to the adoption of Christianity, and the creation of the Slavic alphabet – Cyrillic alphabet in the middle of the 9th century marked the beginning of the revival of Slavic writing. The basis of the Cyrillic alphabet was taken in the writing styles distributed in Rus long before the advent of Christians. The new edition of the Old Russian alphabet was adopted by all non-Catholic Slavic peoples.

Antique and early medieval manuscripts were coming to Rus through Bulgaria and Byzantium. The monks – the most educated people of that time – translated it into Slavic. Written on parchment, books have survived to our time.

In ancient Rus, a rich material and spiritual culture has organed and developed. Remarkable works of ancient Russian craft, a high technical level of material production speak of outstanding successes in the development of the culture of Ancient Rus. Significant development was given to folklore – Old Russian epics and legends. Already in the X century, writing in Rus was widespread. In Novgorod, archaeologists have found many letters on birch bark, which belonged to the XI century.

A large number of letters on birch bark and their contents indicate that literacy was spread in Rus among ordinary people. There is information about princely libraries and schools attached to monasteries. Along with the distribution of translated, mainly Greek works, original domestic literary and historical works were created. The first library in Rus was created in 1037 at the direction of Yaroslav the Wise in

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the St. Sophia Cathedral in Kiev. Painting and applied art reached a high level for that time.

In the X century, the Novgorod-Kiev state was the strongest in the European part of the continent of Eurasia. It maintained ties with Byzantium, Baghdad, Khorezm, India, China, Bulgarian kingdom, kingdom of Bohemia (now Czech Republic), France, England and other states.

Kievan Rus in the XI-XII centuries belonged to the most cultural countries of that time. A.I. Herzen called this period of development of Kievan Rus "blooming and clear Kiev era." Russian culture did not know the painful asceticism, scholasticism in education, which was characteristic of Western Europe of the 11th-13th centuries. In the 9th-11th centuries, Western Europe, both economically and culturally, lagged behind Kievan Rus, the Caliphate, and Byzantium.

Ancient Rus knew several forms of medical traditional medicine or private

medical and handicraft practice (healing) medical care, monastery medicine, including hospital care at monasteries, and, to a lesser extent, secular (foreign) medicine.

Traditional medicine of Kievan Rus was further developed with the development of crafts in the X-XIII centuries. Healing was considered by everyone an honorable occupation. With the introduction of Christianity, monasteries were built with shelters and almshouses, where monks were engaged in healing. The first hospitals attached to monasteries arose in Kiev and Pereyaslavl in the 11th century. Mercy, tolerance for dissent, lack of inquisition is characteristic of the Russian Orthodox Church.

Monuments of fine art, writing and research by archaeologists showed that the sanitary and hygienic skills of the Russian people were at a significantly high level for that time. Ancient Rus was ahead of neighboring countries in the implementation of sanitary measures. The streets in Novgorod and Lviv were paved in the 10th century. Wooden plumbing and water collectors were in Novgorod in the 11th century (in Germany, the first water supply was built in the 15th century). In Novgorod and Staraya Ladoga, archaeologists have discovered

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the remains of “banya” (Russian bath houses). Foreigners were surprised to note the Russian love for the banya. The agreement with Byzantium (907) included an obligation for the defeated Byzantium to provide an opportunity for Russian merchants in Constantinople to use the bathhouse for free.

Russian banya is one of the oldest hygienic infrastructure elements in Rus. Along with its direct purpose, it served as a place where various colds, skin and other diseases were treated. In the ancient Russian state, when there were no civilian hospitals and outpatient clinics, the banya was used to carry out a variety of, including complex medical procedures. In it, the healers corrected the dislocations, made bloodletting, massage, rubbing, took birth. In the XI century, banyas began to be built at monasteries. Public banyas in Russia were built near the monastery and civil hospitals. Individual (personal) banyas at estates and courtyards were widespread everywhere. Although the physiological mechanism of the effect of the steam banya on the body was not yet known, folk healers well understood the healing power of the banya. Therefore,custom was in Rus to offer a guest from the road a steam banya. At the of the 18th century, the famous Russian scientist N. M. Maksimovich Ambodik wrote: “The Russian banya is still considered an indispensable remedy for many diseases. There is no medicine in medical science that equals the strength of a banya”.

In some ancient Russian chronicles, descriptions of diseases encountered in Russia are given. Chroniclers narrated about the diseases of famous, not ordinary people. But in a number of sources of Ancient Rus, data on diseases of a mass nature (when the population of a city or region fell ill) are available. These were mainly acute infectious diseases: plague, smallpox, etc. pestilence was described in the annals of Nestor in Kiev in 1092, Smolensk in 1230.

Patients were treated in ancient Rus’ with various means of plant, animal and mineral origin. Herbal medicines were used very widely: wormwood, Scythian grass (rhubarb), male hater (gingerbread), nettle, ash bark, chamomile, plantain, juniper, birch sap, hellebore, birch and linden leaves, baked onions, etc. Raw cod

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liver, mare’s milk, beaver stream, antlers of deer, honey and other products were used in medicine as drugs of animal origin.

Of the medicines of mineral origin, various minerals are widely used in medical practice, for example, Scythian gemstones. Scythians used chrysolite inside, crushed for stomach pains; women used yakhont (ruby) to facilitate labor. Scythian healers knew the healing properties of arsenic and other substances of mineral origin. They used copper filings inside to improve the digestion of plant fibers, gold powder - for dusting diseased scalp. Chemicals were also used in medical practice: vinegar, nitrate, copper sulfate, soda, turpentine, "sulfur stone". There were known for such treatment methods as bloodletting, massage, hydrotherapy. Treatment in Rus with mineral waters and muds has been known since time immemorial. The people knew the healing properties of “acid water” for a long time and successfully applied it to promote health. Until now, the popular name of this water has been preserved - narzan, which means “hero-water”.

Amulets in Ancient Rus were widespread; patients wore them on their bodies to protect against diseases. Coils are amulets. This is a cast product in the form of round medallion, on the surface of which 12 snake heads are depicted.

The third stage: The Mongol invasion, then the long (from the 13th to the 15th centuries) presence of Rus as part of Yi-Go (the Unified State of Genghis Khan) led to an increase in the tax burden, but life inside the great empire had its advantages. On the western borders of Yi-Go, the psy-rytsari (dogs-knights) were stopped, and the catholicization of the Orthodox population ceased. At the same time, the advance of more developed West European medicine to the East was stopped. The economic and cultural life of Rus in a centralized state was significantly streamlined, the period of feudal fragmentation was successfully overcome thanks to strict ethical standards (Great Yasa Genghis Khan), which the ruling elite had to observe under pain of death. And today, some of the provisions of Yasa seem very relevant:

1.Power is higher than property.

2.Service above possession.

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