3. ENERGY AND SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT

Energy and air quality: SDG 3

Air pollution is a major cause for concern in India and a key policy priority for the government. Combinations of various air pollutants from a diverse range of sources have led to very unhealthy levels of air pollution concentrations in certain regions, in particular major urban areas. The energy sector is the largest source and therefore also the key component of the solution for the air pollution crisis in India. Combustion of fossil fuels (in power, transport and industry) and bioenergy are the two key activities releasing air pollutants and causing negative health impacts. Non-energy-related sources, such as dust from construction of buildings and roads or fallow fields, also play an important role. Episodes of high concentrations of air pollutants can also be exacerbated through particular non-energy sector related events, such as burning of crop residue in specific seasons, the pollution from which can migrate from rural to urban areas. This chapter focuses primarily on the air pollutants most characteristic to energy sector activities, including NOX, SO2 and PM 2.5.

As many as 10 of the top 20 most polluted cities in the world are located in northern and north-western India, exceeding World Health Organization (WHO) recommended average annual concentrations by on average 10 times (Figure 3.5).5 In 2017 air pollution caused around 1.2 million premature deaths in India (12.5% of the total), with household air pollution estimated to have been the cause of over 480 000 of them, and outdoor air pollution attributed to an estimated additional 670 000 (GBD, 2019). Coal used in power generation contributed 7.6% of all PM 2.5.

Figure 3.5 Average annual outdoor PM 2.5 concentrations in selected urban areas, year

Concentration (µg per m3)

Notes: µg = microgramme; m3 = cubic metre.

Sources: Adapted from IEA (2016), Special Report on Energy and Air Pollution, drawing on WHO (2016) Global Urban Ambient Air Pollution Database, www.who.int/phe/health_topics/outdoorair/databases/cities/en/; Demographia (2015), World Urban Areas, http://www.demographia.com/db-worldua.pdf, for population; country groups per income based on World Bank (2016), https://databank.worldbank.org/reports.aspx?source=world-development-indicators

5 The WHO has issued air quality guidelines for a number of air pollutants, including SO2, NO2, PM and ozone. The guidelines apply worldwide and are based on expert evaluation of the scientific evidence.

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Current status of air pollutants

Particulate matter is the main concern as concentrations exceed national standards for PM 10 and PM 2.5 in many of the monitored locations.6 NOX are becoming increasingly problematic, with measurements indicating concentrations that approach or exceed the standards in a growing number of locations. SO2 concentrations are a particular issue in certain hotspot areas with many power plants and other industrial facilities that combust or process coal.

NOX emissions from energy primarily arise in the transport sector, accounting for almost 40% of the total, followed by the power sector (31%) and the industrial and transformation sectors (20%). Most of the NOX emissions in transport come from road transport, mainly from heavy-duty vehicles (HDVs). Mass transport modes, such as buses and rail, are important mobility modes in India, although there is a trend towards greater individual motorisation (as in other emerging economies and many industrialised countries). Passenger vehicle ownership in India has nearly tripled over the last decade, resulting in a strong increase in tailpipe and non-exhaust emissions and damage to human health: around three-quarters of total passenger vehicle kilometres in India today are driven in urban areas. Coal power generation and coal use in heavy industry are also major sources of NOX emissions.7

The power sector remains the source of more than half of SO2 emissions from energyrelated activity (Figure 3.6), despite successful efforts to reduce it (see below section on the Environment Protection Amendment Rules [EPAR] for the power sector). The power supply’s 75% reliance on coal and the characteristics of the coal used are the main drivers of these emissions. While Indian coal is relatively low in sulphur, it has high ash content,8 which also affects the level of PM emissions and, if not adequately controlled, results in elevated dust emissions.9 While around a quarter of the population lives in close proximity to a coal plant, less than 5% live near a plant that is not fitted with dust control equipment and this situation is expected to improve.

The main source of PM 2.5 emissions is the buildings sector, accounting for nearly twothirds of India’s total. Around two-thirds of the Indian population today still use solid fuels as their primary fuel for cooking, and this is the key driver of PM 2.5 emissions. In rural areas biomass use for cooking and heating represents 85% of the energy supply. Its use is, however, on the decline in urban areas where only one-quarter of households use solid biomass for cooking today, down from a 50% share 25 years ago. The adverse consequences of the use of biomass for cooking fall predominately on women and children, who suffer the worst health effects of the smoky indoor environment. Cooking is not the only domestic activity in India that contributes to household air pollution. People

6The National Ambient Air Quality Standards, issued on 18 November 2009, are as follows: for PM 10,60μg/m3 annually and

100μg/m3 over 24 hours; PM 2.5, 40μg/m3 annuallyand60μg/m3 over24hours;forNOx,40μg/m3 annually and80μg/m3 over 24 hours; for SO2,50μg/m3 annually and80μg/m3 over 24 hours. Standards set by the Central Pollution Control Board, www.indiaenvironmentportal.org.in/files/826.pdf; www.arthapedia.in/index.php?title=Ambient_Air_Quality_Standards_in_India; and www.indiaenvironmentportal.org.in/files/file/Air%20Quality%20Index.pdf.

7www.atmos-chem-phys.net/18/8017/2018/acp-18-8017-2018.pdf.

8Three-quarters of current coal production has ash content of 30% or more, with some of the highest-ash coals approaching 50%.

9Thermal power plants are, according to the Environment Protection Amendment Rules (EPAR) of 2015, required to operate electrostatic precipitators that limit the particular matter to the revised environmental norms.

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without reliable or universal access to electricity supply use alternatives for lighting purposes. Biomass, torches, candles and solar lamps are used by only around 1% of the population, while kerosene lamps are used on a regular basis by 30% of Indian households (around 80 million). Smoke from kerosene contains a high level of PM, especially black carbon.

Figure 3.6 Energy-related emissions of major air pollutants (SO2, NOX and PM 2.5) by sector, 2018

Sources: IEA (2019b), World Energy Outlook 2019, based on IIASA.

Air quality policy framework

Under the stewardship of the Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change (MoEFCC), India has promulgated comprehensive air pollution regulation over many years. The Air (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act (1981) is the main legislation that addresses the prevention, control and abatement of air pollution. The Central and State Pollution Control Boards (CPCB/SPCBs) and the Environmental Pollution Control Authority (EPCA) were established to enforce regulation.

Since the mid-1980s, ambient air quality has been monitored across the country under the National Air Monitoring Programme, which was initiated by the CPCB. In 2015 Prime Minister Shri Narenda Modi launched the National Air Quality Index, providing real-time monitoring of air pollution, and a graded response action plan (known as GRAP), laying out actions that need to be taken if the air quality deteriorates, especially in the 100-odd cities with the worst problems. A recent (2018) initiative is the National Clean Air Programme (NCAP). As of August 2018, there are 134 continuous ambient air quality monitoring systems and 703 manual ambient air quality monitoring stations in service, covering 307 cities in 29 states (GoI, 2019). India therefore has a long and established history of monitoring, assessing and tackling air pollution.

Transport sector

The CPCB set the first emission standards in the mid-1980s for gasoline and diesel vehicles. The nationwide regulatory standard for light-duty vehicles (LDVs) and HDVs placed on the market since 2017 is Bharat Stage IV, comparable to Euro 4. The GoI has announced a plan to move to Bharat VI nationwide for LDVs and HDVs alike by April 2020, essentially skipping Bharat V. Implementing Bharat VI will limit gasoline and diesel fuels to 10 parts per million of sulphur, bringing India into line with the global leaders in fuel sulphur standards as early as 2020.

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Box 3.2 A brief history of environmental laws and courts in India

India has a unique judicial stewardship of environmental rules and regulations enforced through environmental courts, also known as “green courts”. The courts are at the forefront of promoting environmental standards, following the 1984 Bhopal catastrophe, a devastating leak of methylisocyanate from a plant in the city of Bhopal which led to the death of over 3 500 people, and also caused severe contamination of soil and groundwater. In the 1970s legislation in India started evolving to include and protect more aspects of the environment. In 1972 the Indian Parliament moved to enact new laws, including the Wildlife Protection Act 1972 and Water (Prevention and Control of pollution) Act 1974. Later in the early 1980s, the Forest Conservation Act 1980 and the Air (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act 1981 were also passed (Nyati, 2015).

Until the mid-1980s, however, these laws were not appropriately enforced, in part due to a lack of capacity within institutions and in part due to developmental objectives that prioritised job creation and industrialisation. Several deficiencies in India’s laws and institutions were laid bare after the 1984 Bhopal tragedy; it triggered judicial and legislative action. Legislative action included the passing of the Environment (Protection) Act of 1986, under which public interest groups and citizens could act against polluters. Until that time, only the state was able to take action. The Air Act and Water Acts were also amended to enable citizen action against polluters. These amendments forced the Pollution Control Boards to disclose their internal reports to citizens seeking to prosecute a polluter (Nyati, 2015). In 1988, on the backs of the Forty-Second Constitutional Amendment that was enacted in 1976, the Supreme Court interpreted the fundamental right to life and personal liberty under Article 21 to include the right to a healthy environment (PIB, 2014).

Over time, the complex multi-disciplinary nature of environmental cases was recognised by the legislature. In 1997 the National Environmental Appellate Authority (NEAA) Act was passed to hear appeals under the Environment (Protection) Act. The courts could refer scientific and technical aspects for investigation and opinion to expert bodies, including the Appellate Authority (Rosencranz, Sahu and Raghuvanshi, 2009).

In 2010 the National Green Tribunal (NGT) Act was passed, establishing a court exclusively for cases under seven environmental laws including the Air Act, Water Act, and Environment (Protection) Act and which could specialise in technical environmental matters. The NGT replaced the NEAA, and India became the third country in the world (after Australia and New Zealand) to have a dedicated green court. The NGT is not bound by the procedure laid down under the Code of Civil Procedure 1908, but is instead guided by principles of natural justice. The NGT is also not bound by the rules of evidence, which makes it easier for conservation groups to present their case at the tribunal. Unlike the mainstream court system where cases may be delayed owing to a backlog of cases, the NGT is mandated to dispose of applications or appeals within 6 months of their filing as and where possible. The tribunal applies the principles of sustainable development, the precautionary principle and the polluter pays

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10 For instance, Delhi has been spearheading conversion of passenger transport vehicles (including buses, taxis and threewheelers) to compressed natural gas (CNG) and has been investing extensively in mass transport, including a metro rail system.

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