ENERGY INSIGHTS

1. Executive summary.....................................................................................................

11

The 2016 Framework Agreement on Energy Policy .........................................................

11

Moving to a fully renewables-based electricity system ....................................................

12

Leadership in reducing CO2 emissions .............................................................................

14

Targeting energy efficiency ...............................................................................................

15

Ensuring oil and gas security ............................................................................................

16

Key recommendations.......................................................................................................

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2. General energy policy.................................................................................................

19

Country overview...............................................................................................................

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Supply and demand...........................................................................................................

21

Main Institutions.................................................................................................................

25

Policy .................................................................................................................................

26

Long-term scenarios..........................................................................................................

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Assessment .......................................................................................................................

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Recommendations.............................................................................................................

31

ENERGY SYSTEM TRANSFORMATION

3. Energy, climate change and transport......................................................................

33

Overview............................................................................................................................

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Energy-related CO2 emissions..........................................................................................

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Climate policy framework ..................................................................................................

37

Transport emissions and policies......................................................................................

41

Electromobility ...................................................................................................................

47

Assessment .......................................................................................................................

49

Recommendations.............................................................................................................

52

TABLE OF CONTENTS

4. Energy efficiency.........................................................................................................

55

Overview............................................................................................................................

55

Energy consumption by sector..........................................................................................

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Regulatory framework .......................................................................................................

60

National policies and measures ........................................................................................

62

Assessment .......................................................................................................................

64

Recommendations.............................................................................................................

66

5. Heat and district heating ............................................................................................

67

Overview............................................................................................................................

67

Supply and demand...........................................................................................................

68

DH markets and regulation................................................................................................

73

Market development..........................................................................................................

75

Assessment .......................................................................................................................

77

Recommendations.............................................................................................................

78

6. Energy technology research, development and demonstration............................

81

Overview............................................................................................................................

81

Strategies and programmes ..............................................................................................

82

Research areas in more detail ..........................................................................................

83

Funding..............................................................................................................................

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Monitoring and evaluation .................................................................................................

88

International collaboration .................................................................................................

89

Assessment .......................................................................................................................

90

Recommendations.............................................................................................................

91

7. Electricity......................................................................................................................

93

Overview............................................................................................................................

93

Supply and demand...........................................................................................................

94

Institutions and legal framework........................................................................................

98

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

Support for renewable electricity.......................................................................................

99

Transmission and distribution networks.........................................................................

101

Generation......................................................................................................................

105

Market design .................................................................................................................

105

Security of supply ...........................................................................................................

110

Assessment ....................................................................................................................

112

Recommendations..........................................................................................................

115

8. Nuclear energy..........................................................................................................

117

Overview.........................................................................................................................

117

Institutions.......................................................................................................................

122

Nuclear safety.................................................................................................................

123

Fuel cycle, waste management and decommissioning

................................................. 124

Communication to stakeholders.....................................................................................

128

Assessment ....................................................................................................................

128

Recommendations..........................................................................................................

130

9. Oil and biofuels.........................................................................................................

131

Overview.........................................................................................................................

131

Supply and demand........................................................................................................

132

Infrastructure...................................................................................................................

134

Retail market and prices.................................................................................................

136

Security of supply ...........................................................................................................

137

Assessment ....................................................................................................................

139

Recommendations..........................................................................................................

140

10. Natural gas and biogas..........................................................................................

141

Overview.........................................................................................................................

141

Supply and demand........................................................................................................

142

Support for biogas production ........................................................................................

143

Regulatory framework ....................................................................................................

144

Infrastructure...................................................................................................................

144

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