vi

Foreward 

ideas presented in the country reports or indeed into all of the important basic

questions. Thus, the selection of issues discussed in more detail may seem some-

what arbitrary; however, above all I tried to pick up on ideas that as yet have not

been discussed very often and relate to basic questions – legal policy included.

The country reports contain many more treasures, waiting to be discovered by

comparative law scholars and theorists.

The ideas for discussion which I present are directed not only to those who

work towards aligning laws, but also to legislators, courts and academics at na-

tional level, with the aim of promoting continued national developments and also

a gradual convergence of legal systems from within. I am convinced that the com-

prehensive, thought-provoking country reports will also supply a rich source for

the work of lawyers working in the field of comparative law.

It must be noted that this volume always refers to the English version of the

» Basic Questions of Tort Law from a Germanic­ Perspective «, as this served as the

basis for the project. I also want to emphasise that the comparative conclusions,

despite their length, are of course by no means capable of reproducing the con-

tents of the detailed country reports either fully or even adequately. In order to

gain real insight into the individual legal systems and their framework of ideas, it

is therefore imperative to read the country reports.

It was only possible to realise this project due to the help of many others.

Thanks are due first to the Austrian Science Fund ( Fonds zur Förderung­ der wissen- 

schaftlichen Forschung ), which provided the necessary funding. Then of course

hearty thanks are due above all to the country reporters, who undertook so much

to break into the rather foreign system of the German legal family and who fre-

quently had to struggle with their already excessive workloads while writing their

responses. I owe much gratitude to my staff at the European Centre of Tort and

Insurance Law, Edina Busch-Tóth, Donna Stockenhuber, Kathrin Karner-Strobach

and Vanessa Wilcox, for their reliable and dedicated handling of the project and

the manuscript; Ms Vanessa Wilcox was also kind enough to produce the index.

Special thanks also go to Ms Fiona Salter-Townshend for her competent transla-

tions of the Japanese report and the comparative conclusions. The publisher, Jan

Sramek, and his team have once again executed the publication so intensively and

professionally that it was a pleasure to work with them.

Vienna • Graz, April 2015

Helmut Koziol

¶

Helmut Koziol ( ed ) • Basic Questions of Tort Law from a Comparative Perspective

Foreword  .............................................................................................................................

V

Table of Contents  ...............................................................................................................

XI

Olivier Moréteau

1

Basic Questions of Tort Law from

a French Perspective

Part  1

Introduction  ..............................................................................................................

  3

Part  2

The law of damages within the system

for the protection of rights and legal interests  ............................................

  10

Part  3

The tasks of tort law  .............................................................................................

  24

Part  4

The place of torts in the law of obligations  ...................................................

  28

Part  5 The basic criteria for a compensation claim  ................................................

  36

Part  6

The elements of liability  .....................................................................................

  59

Part  7

Limitations of liability  .........................................................................................

  82

Part  8

The compensation of the damage  ...................................................................

  86

Part  9

Prescription of compensation claims  .............................................................

  92

Bjarte Askeland

2

Basic Questions of Tort Law from

a Norwegian Perspective

Part  1

Introduction  ............................................................................................................

  99

Part  2

The law of damages within the system

of protected rights  ..............................................................................................

  108

Part  3

The tasks of tort law  ...........................................................................................

  115

Part  4

The area between tort and breach of an obligation  ..................................

  117

Part  5 The basic criteria for a compensation claim  ..............................................

  119

Part  6

The elements of liability  ....................................................................................

  131

Part  7

Limitation of liability  .........................................................................................

  150

Part  8

The compensation of the damage  .................................................................

  154

Part  9

Prescription of compensation claims  ...........................................................

  160

viii

Content Overview 

Katarzyna Ludwichowska-Redo

3

Basic Questions of Tort Law from

a Polish Perspective

Part  1

Introduction  ..........................................................................................................

  165

Part  2

The law of damages within the system for the protection

of rights and legal interests  .............................................................................

  170

Part  3

The tasks of tort law  ...........................................................................................

  186

Part  4

The area between tort and breach of an obligation  .................................

  189

Part  5 The basic criteria for a compensation claim  ..............................................

  194

Part  6

The elements of liability  ...................................................................................

  215

Part  7

Limitations of liability  .......................................................................................

  238

Part  8

The compensation of damage  ........................................................................

  244

Part  9

Prescription of compensation claims  ...........................................................

  247

4

Attila Menyhárd

Basic Questions of Tort Law from

a Hungarian Perspective

Part  1

Introduction  ..........................................................................................................

  251

Part  2

The law of damages within the system for the protection

of rights and legal interests  .............................................................................

  260

Part  3

The tasks of tort law  ...........................................................................................

  277

Part  4

The area between tort and breach of an obligation  .................................

  281

Part  5 The basic criteria for a compensation claim  ..............................................

  287

Part  6

The elements of liability  ...................................................................................

  307

Part  7

Limitations of liability  .......................................................................................

  330

Part  8

Compensation of damage  ................................................................................

  335

Part  9

Prescription of compensation claims  ...........................................................

  339

Appendix – Act V of 2013 on the Civil Code  ..................................................................

  343

5

Ken Oliphant

Basic Questions of Tort Law from the Perspective of

England and the Commonwealth

Preliminary Remarks  ..........................................................................................................

  355

Part  1

Introduction  ..........................................................................................................

  359

Part  2

The law of damages within the system for the protection

of rights and legal interests   ............................................................................

  370

Part  3

The tasks of tort law  ...........................................................................................

  379

¶

Helmut Koziol ( ed ) • Basic Questions of Tort Law from a Comparative Perspective

Content Overview

ix

Part  4

The area between tort and breach of an obligation  .................................

  383

Part  5 The basic criteria for a compensation claim   .............................................

  385

Part  6

The elements of liability  ...................................................................................

  407

Part  7

Limitations of liability  .......................................................................................

  418

Part  8

Compensation of the damage  .........................................................................

  423

Part  9

Prescription of compensation claims  ...........................................................

  426

Michael D. Green • W. Jonathan Cardi

Basic Questions of Tort Law

6

from the Perspective of the USA

Preliminary remarks  ...........................................................................................................

  431

Part  1

Introduction  ..........................................................................................................

  438

Part  2

The law of damages within the system for the protection

of rights and legal interests  .............................................................................

  442

Part  3

The tasks of tort law  ...........................................................................................

  453

Part  4

The area between tort and breach of an obligation  .................................

  457

Part  5 The basic criteria for a compensation claim  ..............................................

  459

Part  6

The elements of liability  ...................................................................................

  477

Part  7

Limitations on liability  ......................................................................................

  498

Part  8

Compensation of damage  ................................................................................

  506

Part  9

Prescription of compensation claims  ...........................................................

  508

Keizô Yamamoto

Basic Questions of Tort Law

7

from a Japanese Perspective

Part  1

The law of damages within the system for protection

of rights and legal interests  .............................................................................

  515

Part  2

The tasks of tort law  ...........................................................................................

  530

Part  3

Structure of the law of torts  .............................................................................

  533

Part  4

Contractual liability and delictual liability  .................................................

  549

Part  5 The basic prerequisites for delictual liability  .............................................

  563

Part  6

The elements of imputation  ............................................................................

  588

Part  7

Limitations of liability  .......................................................................................

  639

Part  8

The compensation of the damage  .................................................................

  653

Part  9

Prescription of compensation claims  ...........................................................

  670

x

Content Overview 

Helmut Koziol

8

Comparative Conclusions

Preliminary remarks  ...........................................................................................................

  685

Part  1

Introduction  ..........................................................................................................

  710

Part  2

The law of damages within the system for the protection

of rights and legal interests  .............................................................................

  733

Part  3

The tasks of tort law  ...........................................................................................

  746

Part  4

The area between tort and breach

of an obligation  ...................................................................................................

  761

Part  5 The basic criteria for a compensation claim  ..............................................

  766

Part  6

The elements of liability  ...................................................................................

  781

Part  7

Limitation of liability  .........................................................................................

  812

Part  8

The compensation of the damage  .................................................................

  823

Part  9

Prescription of compensation claims  ...........................................................

  828

Index 

....................................................................................................................................

841

List of Authors  ..................................................................................................................

      867

Publisher’s note  ...............................................................................................................

869

¶

Helmut Koziol ( ed ) • Basic Questions of Tort Law from a Comparative Perspective

Foreword  .............................................................................................................................

v

Content Overview..............................................................................................................

ix

Olivier Moréteau

Basic Questions of Tort Law from

a French Perspective

1

Part 1

Introduction  ..........................................................................................................

3

I.

The victim’s own risk and shifting of the damage  ....................................

3

II.

An insurance-based solution instead of liability law ?  .............................

5

III.

Strict limits and rigid norms or fluid transitions and elastic rules ?  ...

7

Part 2

The law of damages within the system for

the protection of rights and legal interests  .................................................

10

I.

In general  ...............................................................................................................

10

II.

Claims for recovery  .............................................................................................

10

III.

Preventive injunctions  .......................................................................................

11

IV.

Rights to self-defence  .........................................................................................

12

V.

Reparative injunctions  .......................................................................................

12

VI.

Unjust enrichment by interference  ................................................................

14

VII.

Creditors’ » avoidance « ( action paulienne )  ..................................................

17

VIII.

Claims for damages  ............................................................................................

17

IX.

» Punitive damages « ?  ..........................................................................................

17

X.

Insurance contract law  ......................................................................................

18

XI.

Social security law  ...............................................................................................

19

XII.

Compensating victims of crime and catastrophes  ...................................

20

XIII.

Disgorgement claims  .........................................................................................

21

XIV.

Criminal law  ..........................................................................................................

22

XV.

Concluding remarks  ...........................................................................................

22

Part 3 The tasks of tort law  ...........................................................................................

24

xii

Table of Contents 

I.

Compensatory function  ....................................................................................

24

II.

Deterrence and continuation of a right  ........................................................

26

III.

Penalty  ....................................................................................................................

27

Part 4 The place of torts in the law of obligations  .................................................

28

I.

Tort, contract, and the grey zone  ...................................................................

28

II.

Cases in the grey zone or » interim area «  ......................................................

31

III.

The problem of concurrent claims  ................................................................

33

Part 5 The basic criteria for a compensation claim  ..............................................

36

I.

Damage  ...................................................................................................................

36

A. Definitions  ......................................................................................................

36

B. Pecuniary and non-pecuniary damage  ..................................................

39

C. The principle of full compensation  ........................................................

44

II.

Causation  ...............................................................................................................

46

A. Causation in doctrine: a complex debate  ..............................................

46

B. Causation in jurisprudence: a pragmatic approach  ..........................

49

C. The attenuation of the causation requirement  ...................................

52

1. Multiple tortfeasors, concurrent and alternative causes  ...........

52

2. Uncertainty of causation and loss of a chance  ..............................

55

Part 6 The elements of liability  ...................................................................................

59

I.

Wrongfulness and fault under French law  ..................................................

59

A. Wrongfulness as the core element of fault  ...........................................

60

1. The permanence of the objective element  .....................................

60

2. The retreat of the subjective element  ...............................................

64

B. The indirect role of wrongfulness in no-fault liability  ......................

66

1. The return of fault under hidden comparative negligence  .......

67

2. The return of wrongfulness under the passive but

abnormal role of the thing  ..................................................................

69

II.

The three levels of wrongfulness under French law  .................................

70

III.

Protection against insignificant infringements  .........................................

73

IV.

Protection of pure economic interests  .........................................................

75

V.

Liability for others  ...............................................................................................

77

Part 7 Limitations of liability  .......................................................................................

82

Part 8 The compensation of the damage  ..................................................................

86

I.

The myth of full compensation as a basic principle  ................................

86

A. The so-called principle of full compensation  ......................................

87

¶

Helmut Koziol ( ed ) • Basic Questions of Tort Law from a Comparative Perspective

  Table of Contents xiii

B. The many limits to full compensation  ...................................................

88

C. The hidden principle of apportionment  ...............................................

89

II.

Types of compensation  .....................................................................................

90

III.

Reduction of the duty to compensate  ...........................................................

91

Part 9

Prescription of compensation claims  ...........................................................

92

Bjarte Askeland

Basic Questions of Tort Law from

2

a Norwegian Perspective

Part 1

Introduction  ..........................................................................................................

99

I.

Basic ideas  .............................................................................................................

99

II.

The Norwegian version of pragmatism within tort law  ...........................

104

A. The sources of law and the application  .................................................

104

B. A comprehensive methodological approach  ........................................

105

C. The all-or-nothing approach and its exemptions  ...............................

106

Part 2

The law of damages within the system of protected rights  ....................

108

I.

Introduction  ..........................................................................................................

108

II.

Examples of supplementing rules  .................................................................

109

III.

On the law of unjust enrichment  ...................................................................

111

IV.

On the coherence problem addressed in Basic Questions I  ..................

113

Part 3

The tasks of tort law  ...........................................................................................

115

Part 4

The area between tort and breach of an obligation  ..................................

117

Part 5 The basic criteria for a compensation claim  ..............................................

119

I.

The basic criteria related to damage  .............................................................

119

A. Introduction  ...................................................................................................

119

B. The concept of damage  ...............................................................................

119

C. A » value based « ( » normative « ) delimitation of the

concept of damage  .......................................................................................

120

D. Non-pecuniary loss at the border of the concept of damage  ..........

121

E. Special remarks on non-pecuniary damage  .........................................

122

F. Future perspectives  ......................................................................................

124

II.

Causation  ...............................................................................................................

125

A. Introduction  ...................................................................................................

125

B. Alternative causes  .........................................................................................

125

xiv

Table of Contents 

C. On proportional liability  ............................................................................

126

D. Cumulative causes  ........................................................................................

127

E. Superseding causes  ......................................................................................

129

F.

On causation in joined acts  .......................................................................

129

Part 6 The elements of liability  ...................................................................................

131

I.

Wrongfulness  ........................................................................................................

131

A. Introduction  ...................................................................................................

131

B. Wrongfulness as the delimitation of the concept of damage  .........

132

C. Wrongfulness as a delimitation of the freedom to act  .....................

132

II.

Misconduct in the sphere of the responsible party  ..................................

135

A. Introduction  ...................................................................................................

135

B. The rule of respondeat superior; skl. § 2-1  ............................................

136

C. Vicarious liability in contract  ...................................................................

138

D. Liability for family members  ....................................................................

139

E. Liability for organs  .......................................................................................

140

F.

Dangerousness  ..............................................................................................

141

III.

An interplay of legal bases  ................................................................................

143

IV.

Contributory responsibility of the victim  ....................................................

145

V.

Reduction on the basis of auxiliaries’ conduct  ..........................................

147

Part 7 Limitation of liability  .........................................................................................

150

I.

Introduction  ..........................................................................................................

150

II.

The requirements of adequacy  ........................................................................

150

regarding adequacy  ............................................................................................

152

IV.

The problem of disproportionately vast damage  ......................................

153

Part 8 The compensation of the damage  ..................................................................

154

I.

The idea of » compensation in full «  ...............................................................

154

II.

Lump sum is the main rule  ..............................................................................

155

III.

The reduction of the duty to compensate  ...................................................

156

Part 9 Prescription of compensation claims  ...........................................................

160

Part 1

Introduction  ..........................................................................................................

165

Part 2

The law of damages within the system

for the protection of rights and legal interests  ..........................................

170

¶

Helmut Koziol ( ed ) • Basic Questions of Tort Law from a Comparative Perspective

  Table of Contents

xv

I.

In general 

170

II.

Claims for recovery  .............................................................................................

170

III.

Preventive injunctions  .......................................................................................

171

IV.

Rights to self-defence  .........................................................................................

173

V.

Reparative injunctions  .......................................................................................

173

VI.

Unjust enrichment by interference  ................................................................

175

A. The relationship between claims for unjust enrichment

and claims for damages  ..............................................................................

175

B. Approaches to solutions in intellectual property law  .......................

177

C. A new type of claim ?  ....................................................................................

178

VII.

Claims for damages  ............................................................................................

179

VIII.

Punitive damages  ................................................................................................

179

IX.

Insurance contract law  ......................................................................................

180

X.

Social security law  ...............................................................................................

180

XI.

Compensating victims of crime and catastrophes  ...................................

182

XII.

Disgorgement claims  .........................................................................................

183

XIII.

Criminal law  ..........................................................................................................

184

Part 3 The tasks of tort law  ...........................................................................................

186

I.

Compensatory function  ....................................................................................

186

( Rechtsfortsetzungsfunktion )  .........................................................................

187

III.

Penalty function  ..................................................................................................

188

Part 4 The area between tort and breach of an obligation  ..................................

189

I.

Tort, breach of contract and the interim area  ............................................

189

II.

The problem of concurrent claims  ................................................................

192

Part 5 The basic criteria for a compensation claim  ..............................................

194

I.

Damage  ...................................................................................................................

194

A. Introduction  ...................................................................................................

194

B. Pecuniary and non-pecuniary damage  ..................................................

195

1. In general  ..................................................................................................

195

2. The special nature of non-pecuniary damage  ...............................

195

3. Non-pecuniary harm to legal entities  ..............................................

196

4. The problem of loss of use  ..................................................................

197

C. Real and calculable damage  ......................................................................

199

D. Positive damage and loss of profits  ........................................................

200

E. Damage in the case of unwanted birth ?  ................................................

201

II.

Causation  ...............................................................................................................

203

xvi

Table of Contents 

A. General remarks  ............................................................................................

203

B. Causation through someone’s sphere  ...................................................

203

C. Omissions as cause  ......................................................................................

204

D. The attenuation of the causation requirement  ...................................

204

1.

Liability of several tortfeasors   ............................................................

204

2.

Alternative causation   .............................................................................

205

a. Joint and several liability versus freedom from

liability in the case of several events which would

trigger liability   .................................................................................

205

b. Event which would trigger liability and » coincidence «

as competing causes   ......................................................................

207

c. The doctrine of loss of a chance as the better means

to a solution ?   ....................................................................................

208

d. Alternative perpetrators and alternative victims –

the theory of market share liability ?   .........................................

209

3.

Cumulative causation   . ..........................................................................

210

4.

Superseding causation   ..........................................................................

210

Part 6 The elements of liability  ...................................................................................

215

I.

Wrongfulness  ........................................................................................................

215

A. The concept of wrongfulness  ....................................................................

213

B. Protection against insignificant infringements ?  ................................

217

C. Protection of pure economic interests  ...................................................

218

II.

Fault 

.........................................................................................................................

220

A. Concept, .....................................................prerequisites and meaning 

220

B. Subjective ........................................or objective assessment of fault ? 

223

III.

Other ..................................defects in the damaging party’s own sphere 

225

A. Misconduct ................................................................................of persons 

225

B. Defective .............................................................................................things 

228

IV.

Dangerousness ..................................................................................................... 

229

V.

Permitted .......................................................................................interference 

232

VI.

Economic .........................................................capacity to bear the burden 

232

VII.

Realisation ............................................................................................of profit 

233

VIII.

Insurability .......................................................and actual insurance cover 

234

IX.

Contributory ....................................................responsibility of the victim 

234

Part 7 Limitations .......................................................................................of liability 

238

I.

Interruption ......................................................................of the causal link ? 

238

II.

Adequacy ................................................................................................................ 

238

III.

The protective .................................................................purpose of the rule 

240

¶

Helmut Koziol ( ed ) • Basic Questions of Tort Law from a Comparative Perspective

Table of Contents xvii

A. In general  ........................................................................................................

240

B. The special problem of lawful alternative conduct  ............................

241

IV.

Intervening wilful act by a third party or by the victim  ...........................

243

V.

Limits of liability  .................................................................................................

243

Part 8

The compensation of damage  .........................................................................

244

I.

Extent of compensation  ....................................................................................

244

II.

Types of compensation  .....................................................................................

244

III.

Periodic or lump sum  ........................................................................................

245

IV.

Reduction of the duty to compensate  ...........................................................

246

Part 9

Prescription of compensation claims  ...........................................................

247

Attila Menyhárd

Basic Questions of Tort Law from

4

a Hungarian Perspective

Part 1

Introduction  ..........................................................................................................

251

I.

The victim’s own risk  .........................................................................................

251

II.

An insurance-based solution instead of liability law ?  .............................

255

elastic rules ?  .........................................................................................................

255

Part 2 The law of damages within the system for the protection

of rights and legal interests  .............................................................................

260

I.

In general  ...............................................................................................................

260

II.

Claims for recovery  .............................................................................................

261

III.

Preventive injunctions  .......................................................................................

262

IV.

Rights to self-defence  .........................................................................................

263

V.

Reparative injunctions  .......................................................................................

264

VI.

Unjust enrichment by interference  ................................................................

264

VII.

Creditors’ avoidance  ...........................................................................................

267

VIII.

Claims for damages  ............................................................................................

267

IX.

Punitive damages ?  ..............................................................................................

269

X.

Insurance contract law  ......................................................................................

272

XI.

Social security law  ...............................................................................................

273

XII.

Compensating victims of crimes and catastrophes  .................................

274

XIII.

Disgorgement claims  .........................................................................................

274

XIV.

Criminal law  ..........................................................................................................

276

xviii

Table of Contents 

Part 3 The tasks of tort law  ...........................................................................................

277

I.

Compensatory function  ....................................................................................

277

( Rechtsfortsetzungsfunktion )  .........................................................................

277

III.

Penalty function  ..................................................................................................

278

IV.

Economic optimisation ?  ...................................................................................

279

Part 4 The area between tort and breach of an obligation  ..................................

281

I.

Tort, breach of contract and an interim area  .............................................

281

II.

Groups of cases in the interim area  ...............................................................

283

III.

The problem of concurrent claims  ................................................................

285

Part 5 The basic criteria for a compensation claim  ..............................................

287

I.

Damage  ...................................................................................................................

287

II.

Causation  ...............................................................................................................

296

Part 6 The elements of liability  ...................................................................................

307

I.

Wrongfulness  ........................................................................................................

307

II.

Fault  .........................................................................................................................

312

III.

Other defects in the damaging party’s own sphere  ..................................

317

IV.

Dangerousness  .....................................................................................................

322

V.

Permitted interference  .......................................................................................

324

VI.

Economic capacity to bear the burden  .........................................................

324

VII.

Realisation of profit  ............................................................................................

325

VIII.

Insurability and having insurance cover  .....................................................

325

IX.

The notion of a risk community  .....................................................................

326

X.

The interplay of liability criteria  .....................................................................

326

XI.

Contributory responsibility of the victim  ....................................................

327

Part 7 Limitations of liability  .......................................................................................

330

I.

The basic problem of excessive liability  .......................................................

330

II.

Interruption of the causal link ?  ......................................................................

331

III.

Adequacy  ................................................................................................................

333

IV.

The protective purpose of the rule  .................................................................

333

Part 8 Compensation of damage  .................................................................................

335

I.

Extent of compensation  ....................................................................................

335

II.

Types of compensation  .....................................................................................

335

III.

Periodic or lump sum  ........................................................................................

337

IV.

Reduction of the duty to compensate  ...........................................................

338

¶

Helmut Koziol ( ed ) • Basic Questions of Tort Law from a Comparative Perspective

  Table of Contents

xix

Part 9 Prescription of compensation claims 

339

I.

The basic principles of the law of prescription  ..........................................

339

II.

Present legal position  .........................................................................................

340

with the system and value judgements  ........................................................

341

Appendix – Act V of 2013 on the Civil Code  ..............................................................

343

Ken Oliphant

Basic Questions of Tort Law from the Perspective of

5

England and the Commonwealth

Preliminary Remarks  ......................................................................................................

355

I.

General introduction  ..........................................................................................

355

II.

The fundamental ideas in the » Basic Questions «  .....................................

355

III.

Their application to English and Commonwealth law  ............................

357

Part 1

Introduction  ..........................................................................................................

359

I.

Ownership and shifting of risk  .......................................................................

359

II.

Tort law’s place in the overall system  ...........................................................

361

A. Workers’ compensation  ..............................................................................

361

B. Social welfare provision  ..............................................................................

362

C. Targeted no-fault  ..........................................................................................

363

D. Universal no-fault  .........................................................................................

364

E. Private insurance  ..........................................................................................

368

III.

Certainty versus flexibility  ................................................................................

368

Part 2

The law of damages within the system

for the protection of rights and legal interests  ..........................................

370

I.

In general  ...............................................................................................................

370

A. The basic idea  ................................................................................................

370

B. Applicability of the basic idea

to English and Commonwealth law  ........................................................

370

II.

Recovery of property  ..........................................................................................

370

A. Introductory remarks  ..................................................................................

370

B. Recovery of land  ............................................................................................

371

C. Recovery of chattels  .....................................................................................

371

III.

Injunctions  ............................................................................................................

372

IV.

Self-help  ..................................................................................................................

374

V.

Unjust enrichment  ..............................................................................................

374

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Table of Contents 

VI.

Avoidance of contracts  .......................................................................................

375

VII.

Damages  .................................................................................................................

376

A. Compensatory damages  .............................................................................

376

B. Restitutionary damages  ..............................................................................

376

C. Exemplary ( or punitive ) damages  ...........................................................

376

D. Aggravated damages  ....................................................................................

376

E. Nominal damages  .........................................................................................

377

F. Contemptuous damages  ............................................................................

378

VIII.

Criminal liability  .................................................................................................

378

IX.

Other mechanisms  ..............................................................................................

378

Part 3

The tasks of tort law  ...........................................................................................

379

I.

Introductory remarks  .........................................................................................

379

II.

Compensation  ......................................................................................................

380

III.

Deterrence  .............................................................................................................

380

IV.

Punishment  ...........................................................................................................

381

V.

Mixed accounts  ....................................................................................................

381

A. General justifying aims  ...............................................................................

381

B. Justifying the distribution of tortious liability  ....................................

382

C. Conditions for the imposition of tortious liability  ............................

382

Part 4

The area between tort and breach of an obligation  ..................................

383

I.

Introductory remarks  .........................................................................................

383

II.

Tort, breach of contract and the intermediate area  .................................

383

Part 5 The basic criteria for a compensation claim  ..............................................

385

I.

Damage  ...................................................................................................................

385

A. Torts actionable per se  ................................................................................

386

B. Different types of damage: a hierarchy of protected interests  .......

386

C. Damage in specific torts  .............................................................................

387

1.

Public nuisance  .......................................................................................

387

2.

Private nuisance  ......................................................................................

387

3. Defamation ( libel and slander )  ..........................................................

387

D. Primary and consequential damage  .......................................................

388

E. Loss of profits  ................................................................................................

389

F. Pecuniary and non-pecuniary damage  ..................................................

389

1.

PSLA  ............................................................................................................

389

2.

Mental distress  ........................................................................................

390

G. Non-pecuniary loss and legal persons  ...................................................

391

H. Loss of the enjoyment of a holiday  .........................................................

392

¶

Helmut Koziol ( ed ) • Basic Questions of Tort Law from a Comparative Perspective

  Table of Contents

xxi

I.

Loss of the use of property 

393

J.

Wrongful conception, wrongful life and wrongful birth  .................

394

1.

Wrongful conception   ............................................................................

394

2.

Wrongful life   ............................................................................................

395

3.

Wrongful birth   ........................................................................................

396

II.

Causation  ...............................................................................................................

397

A. Causation’s normative imprint in tort law  ...........................................

397

B. Cause as a necessary condition  ................................................................

398

C. Omissions as cause  ......................................................................................

399

D. Cumulative causation  ..................................................................................

399

E. Overlapping causation  ................................................................................

400

F.

Alternative causation  ...................................................................................

401

G. Damages for loss of chance  .......................................................................

404

Part 6 The elements of liability  ...................................................................................

407

I.

Introductory remarks  .........................................................................................

407

II.

Wrongfulness  ........................................................................................................

407

A. Damnum sine iniuria  ..................................................................................

407

B. What makes the infliction of harm wrongful ?  ....................................

408

C. A de minimis rule  .........................................................................................

408

D. Omissions  .......................................................................................................

409

E. Pure economic loss  ......................................................................................

410

III.

Fault 

.........................................................................................................................

412

A. On .......................................................................................fault in general 

412

B. Children ........................................................................................................... 

413

IV.

Liability ...................................................for other persons and for things 

414

V.

Strict ..........................................................liability for dangerous activities 

415

VI.

Permitted .......................................................................................interference 

416

VII.

Other .........................................................................................considerations 

416

VIII.

Contributory ...............................................................conduct of the victim 

416

Part 7 Limitations .......................................................................................of liability 

418

I.

The basic .......................................................problem of excessive liability 

418

II.

Interruption ........................................................................of the causal link 

419

III.

Remoteness ......................................................................................of damage 

420

IV.

The protective .............................................purpose of the rule infringed 

421

Part 8 Compensation .........................................................................of the damage 

423

I.

On compensation ...........................................................................in general 

423

II.

Periodic ........................................................................................or lump sum 

424

xxii

Table of Contents 

Part 9

Prescription of compensation claims  ...........................................................

426

I.

The current law  ....................................................................................................

426

II.

Commencement of the prescription period  ...............................................

426

III.

Reform proposals  ................................................................................................

427

Michael D. Green • W. Jonathan Cardi

6

Basic Questions of Tort Law

from the Perspective of the USA

Preliminary remarks  ........................................................................................................

431

I.

General introduction  ..........................................................................................

431

A. The source of American tort law  ..............................................................

431

B. The role of the jury  .......................................................................................

432

C. The federal system of law making  ...........................................................

435

D. The structure and goal of this response  ................................................

436

II.

Organizational matters  ......................................................................................

436

Part 1

Introduction  ..........................................................................................................

438

I.

The victim’s own risk  .........................................................................................

438

II.

An insurance-based solution instead of liability law ?  .............................

440

III.

Strict limits and rigid norms or fluid transitions and elastic rules ?  ...

440

Part 2

The law of damages within the system for the protection

of rights and legal interests  .............................................................................

442

I.

Claims for damages  ............................................................................................

443

II.

Punitive damages  ................................................................................................

445

III.

Preventive damages  ............................................................................................

448

IV.

Criminal law  ..........................................................................................................

450

V.

The relationship between restitution and tort law  ...................................

450

Part 3

The tasks of tort law  ...........................................................................................

453

I.

Deterrence of fault and strict liability  ...........................................................

453

II.

The penalty function  ..........................................................................................

454

Part 4

The area between tort and breach of an obligation  ..................................

457

Part 5 The basic criteria for a compensation claim  ..............................................

459

I.

Damage  ...................................................................................................................

459

¶

Helmut Koziol ( ed ) • Basic Questions of Tort Law from a Comparative Perspective

  Table of Contents xxiii

A. Recoverable damage and definitions  .....................................................

459

B. Non-pecuniary damage  ...............................................................................

459

C. Non-pecuniary harm to legal entities  .....................................................

461

D. Distinguishing pecuniary and non-pecuniary damages  ..................

461

E. Real and calculable damage  ......................................................................

462

F.

Positive damage and loss of profits  ........................................................

462

G. Damages in the case of unwanted birth  ................................................

463

II.

Causation  ...............................................................................................................

464

A. The necessity of causation  .........................................................................

464

B. The normativity of causation  ....................................................................

464

C. Conditio sine qua non  .................................................................................

465

D. Omissions  .......................................................................................................

466

E. Modification of the causation requirement  .........................................

467

F.

Proportional liability  ...................................................................................

468

G.

A comment on excursus  .............................................................................

471

H.

Market-share liability  ..................................................................................

472

I.

Cumulative causation or multiple sufficient causes  .........................

474

J.

Superseding causation or duplicated harm  .........................................

475

Part 6 The elements of liability  ...................................................................................

477

I.

Wrongfulness  ........................................................................................................

477

A. Wrongfulness of conduct or of result  .....................................................

477

B. Threshold harm limitations  ......................................................................

477

C. The standard of care  ....................................................................................

479

D. Omissions  .......................................................................................................

480

II.

Fault  .........................................................................................................................

482

A. Children  ...........................................................................................................

482

B. The physically and mentally handicapped  ...........................................

483

C. Superior abilities  ...........................................................................................

484

III.

Vicarious liability  ................................................................................................

485

A. Introduction  ...................................................................................................

485

B.

Liability of auxiliaries  ..................................................................................

486

C. Respondeat superior  ....................................................................................

487

IV.

Defective things  ...................................................................................................

489

V.

Dangerousness  .....................................................................................................

489

VI.

Economic capacity  ..............................................................................................

490

VII.

Insurance  ...............................................................................................................

491

VIII.

Risk communities  ...............................................................................................

492

IX.

Burden shifting and greater liability  .............................................................

493

X.

A blended standard  .............................................................................................

493

XI.

Enterprise liability  ..............................................................................................

494

xxiv Table of Contents 

XII.

Products liability  .................................................................................................

494

XIII.

Comparative responsibility  ..............................................................................

495

Part 7 Limitations on liability  ......................................................................................

498

I.

Proximate cause or scope of liability  .............................................................

498

II.

» Breaking the causal chain «  .............................................................................

500

III.

The standard for determining scope of liability  ........................................

500

IV.

Lawful alternative conduct: factual cause or scope of liability ?  ...........

501

V.

Intervening acts  ...................................................................................................

503

VI.

Limits on liability  ................................................................................................

504

Part 8 Compensation of damage  .................................................................................

506

I.

Lump sum or periodic payments  ...................................................................

506

II.

Reduction of Damages  .......................................................................................

507

Part 9 Prescription of compensation claims  ...........................................................

508

I.

Prescription periods  ...........................................................................................

509

II.

Barring claims before they accrue  ..................................................................

510

Part 1 The law of damages within the system

for protection of rights and legal interests  ..................................................

515

I.

Overview  .................................................................................................................

515

A. Infringement by the person with the right  ...........................................

515

B. Infringement by chance ( casus )  ...............................................................

515

C. Infringement of a right by a third party  ................................................

516

1.

Legal protection by punishing the perpetrator  .............................

516

2.

Legal protection by granting a claim  ................................................

516

a. Protection against damage as a result

of a lawful act – compensation  ...................................................

516

b. Protection against damage as a result

of an unlawful act – civil law legal instruments  ....................

517

II.

Reparative and preventive injunctions  .........................................................

518

A. Current status of the debate  ......................................................................

518

1.

Theory based on exclusive, subjective right  ...................................

518

2.

Theory based on tort  .............................................................................

518

3.

Theory based on wrongful infringement  ........................................

518

¶

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  Table of Contents

xxv

4.

Dualistic theory 

519

a. Theory based on exclusive, subjective rights and

theory based on wrongful infringement  ..................................

519

b. Theory based on exclusive, subjective rights and

theory based on tort  .......................................................................

519

5. Problems associated with the views presented thus far  .............

520

a. Problem of the theory based on exclusive,

subjective rights  ..............................................................................

520

b. Problem of the theory based on tort  .........................................

520

c. Problem with the theory based on

wrongful infringement  ..................................................................

520

d. Problems associated with the dualistic theory  ......................

521

B. Theory based on the duty to protect fundamental rights  ................

521

1.

Justification of claims for reparative and

preventive injunctive relief  ..................................................................

521

a. State duty to protect fundamental rights  ................................

521

b. Duty of the courts to develop the law  .......................................

522

2.

Prerequisites for the protection of rights  .......................................

522

3.

Justification for limiting the rights of the perpetrator  ...............

522

III.

Disgorgement of profit  ......................................................................................

523

A. The problem issue  ........................................................................................

523

1.

Limits of the protection against legal infringements  .................

523

2.

Problem issue  ..........................................................................................

523

a. Obtaining a benefit by unauthorised use

of a third party’s legal good  .........................................................

523

b. Obtaining a benefit by one’s own ability and work  ..............

524

B. The status of the debate in civil law  ........................................................

524

1.

View rejecting the surrender of the benefit  ....................................

524

2.

View supporting the claim for surrender  ........................................

524

a. Imputation of the benefit to the owner

of the right – quasi negotiorum gestio  .....................................

525

b. Sanctioning the unauthorised use  .............................................

525

C. Solution de lege ferenda  .............................................................................

526

IV.

Other legal instruments available to the victim  ........................................

526

A. Limits of the law of damages  ....................................................................

526

1.

Limits due to the necessary prerequisites  ......................................

526

2.

Limits due to the financial means of the injuring party  ............

527

3.

Limits due to the legal proceeding  ...................................................

527

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Table of Contents 

B. Institutions that complement the

law of damages – third party liability insurance  .................................

527

1.

Significance  ..............................................................................................

527

2.

Function  ....................................................................................................

527

C. Institutions independent of the law of damages  ................................

527

1.

Relief provided by the community of

potential causers – accident insurance  ...........................................

528

a.

Specific examples  ............................................................................

528

b.

Special features  ................................................................................

528

2.

Help from the state – social insurance  ............................................

528

a. Compensation for victims of crimes  .........................................

528

b.

Social assistance  ..............................................................................

529

Part 2 The tasks of tort law  ...........................................................................................

530

I.

Compensation of the damage  .........................................................................

530

A. Compensation of the damage – protection of the victim’s rights  .

530

B. Limitation of the injuring party’s rights by the protection of the

victim – observing the injuring party’s rights  .....................................

530

II.

Deterrence and penal function  .......................................................................

530

A. Actual functions  ............................................................................................

531

1.

Deterrent function  .................................................................................

531

2.

Penalising function  ................................................................................

531

B. Deterrence and / or penalising function  .................................................

531

1.

Affirmation of the deterrence and penalising function  .............

531

2.

Rejection of the deterrence and penalising function  .................

532

Part 3 Structure of the law of torts  .............................................................................

533

I.

Overview of the system of delict law in Japan  ............................................

533

A. General rule  ....................................................................................................

533

1.

Prerequisites for liability  ......................................................................

533

a.

Basic prerequisites  ..........................................................................

533

b. Exclusion of liability – grounds for exoneration  ...................

533

2.

Legal consequences  ...............................................................................

534

a.

Damages  .............................................................................................

534

b.

Further legal instruments  ............................................................

535

B. Special rules  ...................................................................................................

535

1.

Tort with the involvement of several parties  .................................

535

a. Liability due to the action of another  .......................................

535

b. Liability of several injuring parties  ............................................

536

2.

Damage by a thing  .................................................................................

536

¶

Helmut Koziol ( ed ) • Basic Questions of Tort Law from a Comparative Perspective

  Table of Contents xxvii

a.

Civil Code  ...........................................................................................

536

b.

Special laws  .......................................................................................

536

infringement of a right, wrongfulness and fault  .......................................

536

A. Starting point  .................................................................................................

537

1.

The rule in art 709 CC  ............................................................................

537

2.

The interpretation of the authors of the Civil Code  ....................

537

a. Significance of the infringement of the right

as a prerequisite for liability  ........................................................

537

b. Significance of fault as a prerequisite for liability  ................

538

B. The emergence of the traditional view  ..................................................

538

1.

Turning point in the case law  .............................................................

538

a. Case law in the beginning  ............................................................

538

b. Change in the case law  ..................................................................

538

2.

The development of the prevailing doctrine –

from infringement of a right to wrongfulness  ..............................

539

a. The emergence of the doctrine of wrongfulness  ...................

539

b.

Evaluation of wrongfulness  ..........................................................

540

3. The concept of fault  ...............................................................................

542

a. Subjective aspect of the concept of fault  .................................

542

b. Objective aspect of the concept of fault  ...................................

542

C. Confusion within the theory of the law of delicts  ..............................

542

1.

Uniform concept of fault  ......................................................................

543

a.

Arguments for uniformity  ............................................................

543

b.

Yardstick for fault  ............................................................................

544

2.

Stricter application of the theory

of wrongfulness and fault  ....................................................................

544

a. Blameworthiness of the injuring party  ....................................

544

b. Concept of wrongfulness and fault  ...........................................

545

3. Departure from the structure based on

wrongfulness and fault  .........................................................................

546

a. Infringement of a right  ..................................................................

546

b.

Intention and negligence  .............................................................

546

D. Return to the liberal rights thesis  ...........................................................

546

1.

Necessity for legal protection  .............................................................

547

a. Rights and legally protected interests

that are the object of the law of delicts  ....................................

547

b. Law of delicts as a system to protect

fundamental rights  .........................................................................

547

2.

Limitation of rights by protection of rights  ...................................

547

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Table of Contents 

a.

Ban on excessivity  ...........................................................................

547

b. Meaning of the principle of fault  ...............................................

547

Part 4 Contractual liability and delictual liability  .................................................

549

I.

Compensation  ......................................................................................................

549

A. The rule in the Civil Code  ..........................................................................

549

1.

Prerequisites for contractual liability  ..............................................

549

a.

Failure to perform  ...........................................................................

549

b. Attributability to the obligor  .......................................................

549

2.

Problems  ...................................................................................................

550

B. The term failure to perform  ......................................................................

550

1.

Differentiation according to the type of failure to perform  ......

550

a.

Argumentation  .................................................................................

550

b. Reception of the German theory  ................................................

550

2.

The structure of the obligation relationship as the premise  ....

550

a.

Argumentation  .................................................................................

550

b. Influence of German law  ...............................................................

551

3. From the uniform failure to perform theory

to the theory of breach of contract  ...................................................

551

a. Uniform failure to perform theory  .............................................

551

b.

Theory of breach of contract  .......................................................

552

protection of the » Integritätsinteresse «  .......................................................

552

A. Problem issue  ................................................................................................

552

1.

Violation of the » Integritätsinteresse « within the

contractual relationship  .......................................................................

552

2.

Differences between delictual and contractual liability  ............

552

B. Reasons for contractual liability  ..............................................................

553

1.

Structural analysis of the contractual relationship

of obligation  .............................................................................................

553

a. Protective duties as contractual duties  .....................................

553

b. Establishment of a protective duty  ............................................

553

2.

Judge-made developments in law – the duty

to have regard for the security of the contractual partner  ........

553

a. Duty of the employer to have regard for

the security of the employee  ........................................................

554

b. Extension to other contractual relationships  .........................

554

3. The theory of breach of contract  .......................................................

555

a.

Determination of the contents of the contract  ......................

555

b.

Extent of contractual liability  ......................................................

555

¶

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  Table of Contents

xxix

the chronological context – culpa in contrahendo  ...................................

556