
Экзамен зачет учебный год 2023 / Dixon, Modern Land Law
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Futher Reading
Dixon, M. and Harpum, C. ‘Fraud, undue influence and mortgages of registered land’ [1994] Conv 421
Haley, M. ‘Mortgage default: possession, relief and judicial discretion’ (1997) 16 LS 483
Law Commission. Land Mortgages, Report No. 204. London: HMSO, 1991
Roplaigeach v. Barclays Bank [1999] 3 WLR 17; [1999] CLJ 281
Chapter 11: Adverse possession
Cooke, E. ‘Adverse possession, problems of title in registered land’ (1994) 14 LS 1
Dockray, M. ‘Why do we need adverse possession?’ [1985] Conv 272
Harpum, C. ‘Buckinghamshire County Council v Moran’ [1990] CLJ 23
Tee, L. ‘Adverse possession and intention to possess’ [2000] Conv 113
Harpum, C. and Radley-Gardner, O. ‘Adverse possession and the intention to possess – a reply’ [2001] Conv 155
Lorna Fox & Neil Cobb: 27 Legal Studies Vol. 2: 236-260. (2008)
Human rights and property law
Gray, K. and Gray, S. in Tee, L. (ed.), Essays in Land Law. Devon: Willan, 2002
Howell, J. ‘The Human Rights Act 1998’ in Cooke, E. (ed.) Modern Studies in Property Law, Vol. 1. London: Hart, 2001
Halstead, P. ‘Human property rights’ [2002] Conv 153
534

INDEX
Absolute title 52-3 Actual occupation meaning 60, 61-2
Adverse possession 501-30 common law 501-2
effect of successful claim 529 establishing 503-10
feudal origins 501 human rights, and 524-6
Article 1, Protocol 1 525 Land Registration Act 1925 518
Land Registration Act 2002 502-3, 519-24, 527
application for registration 520 basic principles 519
boundary exception 523-4 counter-notice 520-1
effect of registration of adverse possessor 524
estoppel 522-3 exceptions 521-4
‘ought to be registered’ 522-3 squatter entitled to be registered as
proprietor 523 statutory scheme 520-1 unconscionability 522-3
limitation of actions 527
limitation period under old law 527 overriding status 67-8
period not completed before 13 October 2003 529-30
policy, and 502
rules common to unregistered and registered land 503-10
‘adverse’ 507 case law 503-4
factual possession 506-10 human rights, and 508-9 intention to exclude 504-6 intention to possess 504-6 physical possession 506-10 proof of intention to possess 506
stopping clock of limitation 528-9 substantive law: intention to possess 528 substantive law: physical possession 528 traditional principle 527
unregistered land 510-18
effect on adverse possessor – freeholds 515-16
effect on adverse possessor – leaseholds 516-17
effect on paper owner 514-15 effect of successful claim 514-17
limitation period 510-13 start of limitation period 512
stopping clock of limitation 513 substantive nature of adverse possessor’s
rights prior to completing period of limitation 517-18
Alteration of register 97-101, 108 general conditions 98-9 rectification 99-101
statutory scheme 98
Authorised guarantee agreements 287-90
Bankruptcy 170-3
sale of co-owned property, and 170-3 human rights, and 172-3
matters considered by court 171-2 postponement 172
trustee in bankruptcy 171-3
Charge 452
equitable 461. see also Mortgages Charges register 44-5
schedule of restrictive covenants 45 Constructive trust 195-201
common intention 196-9 domestic context 198-9 express agreement 197 inferring 197-8
three routes 196 co-ownership, and 195-201 detrimental reliance 200-1
detriment 200-1 forms 200
nature of interest generated 201-3 proprietary estoppel, and 204-5, 440-4 quantification of share 201-3
two legal owners, when 203-4 resulting trusts, and 204-5
use of concept 195-6 Contracts 3-4
licence, and 410-11 Conversion
abolition of doctrine 222 Co-ownership 147-217
advantages of legislative reforms 163-5 component parts 148
constructive trust 195-201. see also Constructive trust
creation 188-207
establishing equitable interest 191-2 legal title in one name only 190-1, 216
equitable interest 213-14
equitable owners, position of 181-5
535

Index
Co-ownership cont. overreaching, whether 182 problem in perspective 184-5 reform proposals 182-4
express creation 188-90, 216 validity of trust 188-9
express trust 192 implied creation 147
investigation of title 164-5 joint tenancy. see Joint tenancy
Law of Property Act 1925, effect 153-5, 213 nature of 148, 213
payment of compensation for exclusive use 216
position of equitable owners when overreaching occurs 215
possession 215
property adjustment order 205-6 purchase money resulting trust 192-5.
see also Resulting trust purchaser of co-owned land 215
overreaching 175-7 right to occupy 215 severance 207-12, 216-17
act operating on own share 209-10 mutual agreement 211
mutual conduct 211
section 36(2) Law of Property Act 1925 208-9
statutory notice 208-9 significance of law 147 statutory machinery 158-9
tenancy in common. see Tenancy in common
TOLATA 1996, effect 153-5, 213 summary of effect 187
trust of land 165-87 advantages 214
approach of court when application made under section 14 of TOLATA 173-5
bankruptcy 170-3 bankruptcy of co-owner 175
consents not initially required 178-9 consents required 177-8 disadvantages 165-87, 214-15 disputes between co-owner and third
party secured creditor 174 disputes between co-owners 173 disputes as to sale 166-8
equitable owners, position of 181-5 mortgagee, and 175
nature of 214
no overreaching, where 179-81 order for sale of property 166-73 possession, question of 185-6 rent, payment of 186
TOLATA 1996, effect 214 types 148, 213
Covenants
leasehold. see Leasehold covenants Customary rights 65
Damages
breach of covenant, and 307 leasehold covenants, and 296
Deed
easements created by 327 Doctrine of estates 6-7
E-conveyancing
proprietary estoppel, and 439 Easements
benefit to dominant tenement 320-2 burdensome obligations 323 capable grantee 322
capable grantor 322
capable of forming subject matter of grant 322-5
certainty of rights 322-3
comparison between Wheeldon v Burrows and section 62, Law of Property Act 1925
creation 337
deed, created by 327
dominant and servient tenement 318-19 dominant tenement 317
equitable 329-30 formalities 326, 365
essential characteristics 318-26, 365 express creation 337-9, 366 express grant 337-8
express reservation 338-9 extinguishment 362-3, 368 implied by common intention
grant and reservation 341-2 implied creation 339-51, 366-7
common intention 367 necessity 366
section 62, Law of Property Act 1925 367
Wheeldon v Burrows 342-6, 367 implied by reason of section 62, Law of
Property Act 1925 346-9 example 350-1
implied by reservation
grant and reservation 339-41
536

Index
Easements cont.
implied under rule in Wheeldon v Burrows 342-6, 367
incorporal hereditament 317 legal 326-9
formalities 326, 365 overriding effect 75-7 overriding status 64-5
legal and equitable distinguished 330-6, 366 purchasers of dominant or servient
tenement 330-6 registered land 331-5 significance in practice 330-6
nature of 317-18 personal benefit 320-1
Prescription Act 1832 361-2 easements except easements of light
361-2
easements of light 362 prescription, by 327, 351-62, 367-8
basis of doctrine 352 common law 360 continuous user 359 fee simple only 353-5
general conditions 352-3 limited exception 357 lost modern grant 360-1
methods of establishing 359-62
use must be in character of easement 357-8
use must be lawful 358-9 use must be ‘of right’ 355-7 use without force 356
use without permission 356-7 use without secrecy 356
proprietary estoppel, and 440 proximity of servient to dominant
tenement 320 public policy 325-6 recreational use 321 reform 363-4
registered disposition, created by 327-8 registered land 331-5
benefit 331
equitable easements and dealings with land already registered 334-5
equitable easements at first registration of title 334
equitable easements overriding prior to 13 October 2003 333-4
legal easements expressly created over registered estate on or after
13 October 2003 332-3
legal easements impliedly created over registered estate on or after 13 October 2003 332-3
legal easements in existence at first registration of title 332
legal easements in existence before 13 October 2003 331
servient land 331
separation of dominant and servient tenement 319-20
statute, created by 327
undue restrictions on servient land 324-5 unregistered land 335-6
equitable easements 336 legal easements 336
Electronic conveyancing
distinction between legal and equitable property rights 16
Entail 8-9
Equity of redemption. see Mortgages Estates in land 6-9
Estoppel
adverse possession, and 522-3 mortgages by 460-1
proprietary. see Proprietary estoppel Exclusive possession 243-50. see also Leases
Fee simple 7 Fee tail 8-9
Financial Services and Markets Act 2000 mortgages, and 480
Foreclosure. see Mortgages Forfeiture 297-307
breach of covenants other than to pay rent 301-4
application for relief from 303-4 availability of relief when forfeiture by
physical re-entry 305 availability of relief when landlord
proceeds to forfeit by action for possession 304
covenant ‘capable of remedy’ 302-3 reform 306-7
repairing covenants 306 section 146 notice 301-4 waiver 305-6
discretionary relief for non-payment of rent 300-1
general considerations 297-8 leasehold covenants, and 297-307 non-payment of rent, for 298-300
Freehold covenants 371-406 artificial long lease 399
537

Index
Freehold covenants cont.
burden must be intended to run with land 384-5
chain of covenants 398
construing section 79 LPA 1925 400-1 contracts, as 373, 403
covenantee’s land: benefit of covenant 374 covenantor’s land: burden of covenant 373 devices that may allow passing of burdens
406 discharge 401-2
duality of benefit and burden 374 enforcement
between original covenantor and covenantee 404
equity, relevance of 403-6 law, relevance of 403-6 passing the benefit 405-6 passing the burden 404
enforcement of burden 397-402
enforcing against successors in title 379-81 enforcing between original covenantor and
covenantee 377-9
after original covanantee has parted with land 378
after original covenantor has parted with land 377
both original parties in possession 377 defining original covenantee and
covenantor 378-9
original covenantor having no land at all 378
equitable nature of remedy 387 equity, relevance of 375-6 escaping confines of law 397-402
factual context for enforcement 376-7 interests in land, as 373-4, 403
law, relevance of 375-6 meaning 371-2 modification 401-2
must be restrictive or negative in nature 381
must have been imposed to benefit land of original covenantee 383-4
must touch and concern land 381-3 mutual benefit and burden 399-400 nature of 372-4
negative 372-3, 403
passing benefit of covenant to successors in title to original covenantee 388-97
annexation 392-4
assignment, express or implied 394 assignment of benefit 391
benefit annexed to legal estate in land 389-91
building scheme 395-7
claimant must have legal estate in land 389, 392
covenant touching and concerning land 388, 392
equity, in 391-7 law, at 388-91
scheme of development 395-7 transmission of benefit to claimant 392-6
passing burden 379-81 positive 372-3, 403 registration 385-6
registered land 385-6 unregistered land 385-6
rentcharges
rights of re-entry 401 suing at law 375
suing in equity 375-6 Freehold estate 7
Good leasehold title 53
Historical survey 1 Human rights
adverse possession, and 508-9, 524-6 sale of co-owned property, and 172-3
Indemnity under Land Registration Act 2002 101-3, 108
mistake, and 102-3 Injunction
breach of covenant, and 307 leasehold covenants, and 296-7
Interests in land 9-10 four-fold test 5-6 meaning 5
Interests of persons in actual occupation 60-4 meaning 60
more than one person 63 physical presence 62-3
subsisting at time of first registration 60-1
Joint tenancy 148-51
equitable interest 155-8, 213-14 four unities 150-3
ius accrescendi 149-50
right of survivorship 149-50
tenancy in common distinguished 155-8 trust of land 159-63
disposition, created by 163
duty of trustees to hold land 160-1
538

Index
Joint tenancy cont.
functions and powers of trustees 162 nature of 159-60
one trustee 163 power of sale 161-2 proceeds of sale 161 TOLATA 1996 159-63 trust for sale 161
trustees unconnected with equitable interest 162-3
unity of interest 150 unity of possession 150 unity of time 151 unity of title 151
unseverable, nature of 159-63
Land meaning 2-3
Land Charges Act 1972 21 Land Charges Register 119-34
Class A 122
Class B 122
Class C 122-4
Class D 124-5 Class E 125 Class F 125-6
classes of charge 121-6
consequence of failing to register 129-30 effect of registration 126-9
actual notice 128 name, search of 126-7 purchaser, and 128-9
equitable easements, rights or privileges 125
estate contracts 123-4 general equitable charge 123 Inland Revenue charge 124 limited owner’s charge 123
mortgage not protected by deposit of title deeds 122-3
name-based 139 restrictive covenants 125 voidness rule 130-3
fraud, and 131-2
money or money’s worth 130-1 proprietary estoppel 132-3 transferee who is not purchaser 131 valuable consideration 130-1
Land law
other legal disciplines distinguished 3-4 proprietary nature of rights 4
Land Registration Act 1925 20-1
Land Registration Act 2002 1-2, 20-1, 31-3
Law of Property Act 1925 20 substantive changes to land law 25
Leasehold covenants 263-308 action for arrears of rent 295 action for damages 296
assignment of equitable lease to new tenant 278-82
forfeiture clause 279-80
implied new contractual obligations 281 new tenancy 281
privity of estate 278 restrictive covenants 280-1
assignment of lease to new tenant for pre1996 leases 270
assignment of reversion to new landlord under pre-1996 tenancies 274
benefit 263-4 burden 263-4
commercial rent arrears recovery 294-5 continuing liability of original tenant throughout entire term of lease
265-70
assignment of perpetually renewable lease 266
fixed charge 268-9
increased rent resulting from variation of lease 268
indemnity obligation 267 regrant of lease 266-7 statutory extension of lease 266
continuing rights and obligations of original landlord throughout terms of lease 270
enforceability 264-5
assignment of reversion of equitable lease to new landlord 277-8 claimant and defendant must be in
privity of estate 271-2
covenant must touch and concern land 272-3
equitable assignments of legal leases 277 equitable leases 277
Law Commission 283
original landlord and tenant 277 reform proposals 283-4
special rules 273 subtenants 282-3
forfeiture 297-307. see also Forfeiture injunction 296-7
Landlord and Tenant (Covenants) Act 1995 284-94, 313-14
application 285-6
authorised guarantee agreements 287-90
539

Index
Leasehold covenants cont.
automatic transfer of benefits and burdens 291-2
effect 284-5
general principles 285-6 landlord’s position 292-3 release of tenants 287 tenant’s position 286-92
landlord’s remedies for breach 294-307, 314 leases granted before 1 January 1996 265-84,
312-13
leases granted on or after 1 January 1996 293-4, 313-14
liability between original landlord and tenant 265
nature of 263
new scheme 284-94 personal 272-3 proprietary 272-3
section 141 Law of Property Act 1925: benefit of original landlord’s covenants 274
special rules 276-7
section 142 Law of Property Act 1925: burden of original landlord’s covenants 274-6
registration 275 repayment of deposit 275-6
specific performance 296-7
tenant’s remedies for breach 307-8, 315 damages 307
injunction 307
retention of future rent 308 specific performance 307-8
Leasehold estate 7-8 good leasehold title 53
Leases 241-315 assignment 242
covenants, 242-3. see also Leasehold covenants
creation 254-63, 311 contract 254-5
duration of life of person 252 equitable
contract/lease analysis 258-60 creation 258-60
legal leases distinguished 262-3, 312 registered land 261
relative informality 260 specific performance, and 259 third parties, and 260-1 unregistered land 261
essential characteristics 243-54
exclusive possession 243-50 contract, and 248-9
multiple occupancy agreement 246-7 occupation agreement 245-6 pretences 250
public sector landlords 247-8 reservation of right by landowner, and
249-50
sham devices 250 legal
creation 255-7
equitable leases distinguished 262-3, 312 formality 255-7
registration 256-7 third parties, and 257-8
licence, and 244-50 marriage of lessee 252 nature of 241-3, 311 periodic tenancies 251-2 perpetually renewable 252 proprietary rights 242 registered land 311-12 rent 253-4
short-term
overriding first registration 58-9 statutory provisions concerning certain
terms 252-3 term certain 251
termination 308-10, 315 disclaimer 310 effluxion of time 308 enlargement 310 forfeiture 308 frustration 310 merger 309
notice 308-9
repudiatory breach of contract 310 surrender 309
terminology 241 unregistered land 311-12
Legal easements overriding effect 75-7 overriding status 64-5
Legal or equitable quality of proprietary rights 10-18, 27-8
consequences of distinction 18-19 distinction between legal and equitable
rights 11
division of ownership 16-18 electronic conveyancing, and 16
equitable property rights between 1925 legislation 19
history 10-11
540

Index
Legal or equitable quality of proprietary rights cont.
legal property rights before 1925 legislation 18
manner of creation of right 12-15 equitable in practice 14-15 ‘legal’ right in practice 13-14 oral contract 15
original significance of distinction prior to 1926 28
origins of distinction between legal and equitable rights 10-11
section 1, Law of Property Act 1925 11-12 trust, and 16-18
Licences 407-22 bare 411-12
contract, and 410-11 contractual 412-13
interests in land, whether 413-14 personal nature of 419-20 proprietary, whether 414-17 purchaser, effect against 417-19
purchases of licensor’s land, and 413-14 remedies, and 413
essential nature of 407-11, 445 estoppel 420-2
formal requirements 408-9 interest, coupled with 412 lease, and 244-50
not proprietary 410 parking 409
personal permission 408 proprietary estoppel, and 420-2 proprietary right, and 409 types 411-19, 445
Life interest 9
Local land charges 65
Mistake
indemnity, and 102-3 Mortgages 447-500
charge 452
classic definition 448-9, 497
contract between borrower and lender 447-8
creation 497
creation before 1925 452-3
creation on or after 1 January 1926 453 current account 451
device for purchase of property, as 449-50 endowment 451
equitable 457-62
deposit of title deeds 459-60
equitable interests 458 estoppel 460-1
informal mortgages of legal interests 458-9
rights of mortgagee 496, 499-500 vulnerability 461-2
equitable charges 461
equity of redemption 462-81, 497-8 attempts to purchase mortgaged
property 465-6 collateral advantages 466-7
contractual right to redeem 463 equitable right to redeem 463-4 rule against irredemability 464-5 unconscionable terms 467-8 unfettered redeemability 466-7 unreasonable interest rates 467-8 value of 464
essential nature 447-52, 497 estoppel 460-1
Financial Services and Markets Act 2000 480
foreclosure 494-6
effect on other mortgages 495-6 statutory control 495
interest in land in its own right 448 legal mortgages of registered title under
Land Registration Act 2002 456 mortgagee, rights of 481-96 mortgagor, rights of 497-8 possession, right to 487-94
consequences 488 possible limitations 492-4
statutory restrictions 489-92 power of sale 483-7
consequences 484-5 regulating 485-7
powers of mortgagor 480-1
registration under Land Registration Act 2002 457
remedies for defaults 481-965, 498-9 action on contract for recovery of debt
482-3 foreclosure 494-6
possession, right to 487-94 power of sale 483-7 receiver, appointment of 494
repayment 450-1
restraint of trade 479-80, 498 secured overdraft 451-2 types 450-2
undue influence 468-78, 498 actual 469
541

Index
Mortgages cont.
administrative practices of lending institutions 477
avoidance of being tainted by 475 effect of successful plea 478 independent advice, and 472 lender, responsibility of 475-6 notice of 474
practical steps to avoid 476 presumed 469-70
social and economic importance 473 unlawful credit bargains 478-9, 498 unregistered land and registered freehold
titles mortgaged before 13 October 2003 453-5
charge 454-5
long lease method 453-4 unregistered leases and registered
leasehold titles mortgaged before 13 October 2003 455-6
charge 456
long subleases 455
Notices 83-9 agreed 85-6
cancelling 88 evidence 85 third-party rights 85-6
agreed or unilateral, whether 87-8 matters not protected 84-5 meaning 83-4
registrar’s 86-7 cancelling 88
types 83-4 unilateral 86
cancelling 88-9 challenging 88-9
Overreachable rights 134-6 conditions 135 equitable rights 134-5
unregistered land, and 134-6 Overreaching 93-7, 108
failure, consequences of 96-7 meaning 93-4
right must be capable of being overreached 94
statutory conditions 94-6 strict settlements 96
transaction by at least two trustees 94-6
Overriding interests 22-3 time limited 66-7
Persons in actual occupation 70-5 actual knowledge 73-4
additional conditions under Schedule 3 72-5
conditions 71-2
general considerations 71 inspection of land 72-3 overriding interest 70-5
Possessory title 53-4 Prescription
easements created by 327, 351-62 Privity of estate 271-2. see also Leasehold
covenants
Profits a prendre 363, 369 overriding effect 75-7 overriding status 64-5 reform 363-4
Property adjustment order 205-6 Property legislation 1925 and 2002 28-9 Property register 43-4
Proprietary estoppel 132-3, 138 assurance 425, 427-9
specific 429 understanding 429 unilateral promise 429
conditions for operation 424-33, 446 constructive trusts, and 204-5, 440-4
assurance 441 common intention 442 discretion 443
evidentiary requirements 443 family home 442
formality requirements 442 informal promise 442 ‘satisfied’ 443
defence, as 423-4 detriment 425, 431-2 e-conveyancing, and 439 easement, and 440 formality rules, and 425-6 issues of doubt 435-40
Land Registration Act 2002, after 437-9 licence, and 420-2
meaning 423 nature of 446
range of remedies 435 reliance 425, 430-1
‘sufficient link’ 430 resulting trusts, and 204-5 role of 445
successful plea, result of 433-5, 446 expectation based remedy 434 reliance based remedy 434
542

Index
Proprietary estoppel cont. third parties, and 435-40, 446
unconscionability, and 426, 432-3 unregistered land 440
Proprietary rights 4-5 types 6-10, 27
Proprietorship register 44 absolute freehold 44 schedule of covenants 44
Protectable registrable interest 23 Public policy
easements 325-6
Public Private Partnership leases 66 Public rights 65
Puisne mortgage 113-14
Qualified title 54
Real property, law of 2-6 nature of 2-6
scope of 2-6 Receiver
appointment by mortgagee 494 Rectification of register 99-101 Register of annuities 133
Register of deeds of arrangement 133 Register of pending actions 133 Register of writs and orders affecting
land 133
Registered charges 22, 47-8 Registered land 22-3, 31-108
absolute title 52-3 access to register 42-3 Act of 2002 31-3
alteration of register 97-101. see also Alteration of register
basic concept of title registration 33-5 benefits 38
bindingness of overriding interests under Land Registration Act 2002 80-2
consent to sale or mortgage of land 81-2 date for determining 81
existence of right 82 registration gap 81
classification of proprietary rights 51 compulsory first registration 34-5
triggers 34-5 curtain principle 40-1
equitable interests, and 40 overreaching 40-1
doctrine of notice, rejection 45-6 duty to disclose 79-80 e-conveyancing, and 37-8
Registered land cont.
enforcing registered protected interests 89-92
basic priority rule 90 fraud, and 91-2 indemnity 90 negligence 90 overriding interest 90 purchaser for value 90-1
unconscionable conduct 91 unregistered interests 90-2
entering overriding interests on register 79-80
fundamental operating principles 38-42 goals of system 36-8
good leasehold title 53 hostile interests 37
indemnity under LRA 2002 101-3. see also Indemnity under LRA 2002
insurance principle 41-2 importance of 42 statutory indemnity 41-2
interests protected by registration 49-51 law reform 31-2
mechanics of registration of interests 83-92 minor interests 49-51
mirror principle 38-40
electronic conveyancing, and 40 inspection of land, and 39
nature 1-7
nature of system 35-8
new owner, purchaser or mortgagee under registered disposition 55-6
notices. see Notices operation 51-6, 56-92
overreaching 37. see also Overreaching overriding interests 48-9
overview 42-51, 107-8 overview of Act of 2002 103-5 policy goals 31-2
possessory title 53-4
protected registered interests under Act of 2002 83-92
purpose 107
purpose of system 35-8 qualified title 54 register extract 43-5
registrable estates under LRA 2002 46-7 reliance on register 36-7
restrictions. see Restrictions root of title, and 36
third party interests 49-51 third party rights, and 37
543