Экзамен зачет учебный год 2023 / European Condominium Law
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In the event that the statutes of an existing scheme do not contain any provisions on a two-tiered management regime, the position is the same as described above with regard to new schemes. The general meeting may, with a majority of 80 per cent, introduce subsidiary associations with or without legal personality.77
The advantages of such a two-tier structure are that it would allow a fairer allocation of expenses among the various subsidiary associations and would facilitate the harmonious governance of different interest groups. The subsidiary associations would have the same powers and functions as the main association in respect of their own components of the scheme. They would elect their own condominium board, conduct their own general meetings, prepare their own budgets, have their own reserve fund and allocate their own expenses and service charges, promulgate their own by-laws and regulate their own exclusive use areas.78
5. South African Ombud Service
Up to 2011 the only dispute resolution mechanism available in South Africa was a kind of statutory arbitration regulated by Annexure 8 rule 71 of the Regulations under the South African Sectional Titles Act.79 Since its introduction, arbitration has been criticised as equally expensive and time-consuming as court proceedings and an unsuitable method of resolving condominium disputes. The Department of Lands, which administered the Sectional Titles Act, was inundated with complaints from sectional owners and this compelled them to appoint consultants to investigate the establishment of a more suitable dispute resolution system.
After the investigation of similar systems in Singapore, New South Wales and Queensland, the Community Schemes Ombud Service Act 9 of 2011 was promulgated to provide dispute resolution service for ‘community schemes’, which include sectional title schemes, real estate cooperatives, retirement schemes and housing schemes controlled by home owners’ associations.
77Art. 577-7 § 1 no. 2 f) and g); Timmermans, ‘Verniewde Apartementswet’, nos. 48–50.
78See Van der Merwe and Paddock, ‘Two-tiered governance for mix-use and large-scale sectional title schemes’ (2008), pp. 473ff.
79Annexure 8 rule 71.
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The Act makes provision for the establishment of a national head office under the control of the Chief Ombud and several regional offices under the control of regional ombuds, staffed by competent adjudicators and conciliators.80
The functions of the Community Scheme Ombud Service have deliberately been widened in order to accommodate some of the features of United States Condominium Ombudsman legislation.81 The functions are the following:
(a)to develop and provide a dispute resolution service;
(b)to train conciliators, adjudicators and employees;
(c)to monitor and take custody of scheme governance documentation; and
(d)to provide education, information, documentation and other services to the public.82
Whereas the office of the Chief Ombud will develop and monitor dispute resolution services and train conciliators and adjudicators, the service itself will be provided by the regional ombuds, adjudicators and conciliators. An important function of the Chief Ombud will be the inspection and approval of by-laws of community schemes that were only lodged with the Land Registry and never examined for their appropriateness. These by-laws are now kept in safe custody and made available electronically to the public on request.
The establishment and equipment of the national head office and the most important regional offices is funded by the South African government. The operation of the national and regional offices will, in future, be funded mainly by levies collected from unit owners as well as cost recovery fees charged for the various services offered by the Ombud Service.83 A reasonable income could be expected from the furnishing of scheme documentation and the fees charged for the collection of arrear contributions via the regional ombud service offices rather than by debt collection proceedings in the magistrates’ courts.
Any party to a dispute or any person who is materially affected by a complaint or a dispute may apply to a regional office for relief. The application for relief is limited to one or more of the 28 orders listed in
80S. 21(2).
81See Nevada Revised Statute 116.625 and 116.630; Florida Code 718.5011–5012.
82 S. 4. |
83 S. 22. |
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section 39 of the act.84 The orders are divided into seven categories. The respective categories relate to financial problems, behavioural issues, scheme governance issues, meetings, management services, works pertaining to private and common areas and other general issues.85 The list is not exhaustive and the chief ombud is entitled to propose any further order.86
Examples of orders addressing financial issues include an order requiring the association to increase the level of insurance cover on the scheme building or an order requiring the association to have its accounts audited by a designated auditor. Behavioural issues can be addressed by an injunction to prevent nuisance, and in the case of an animal causing a nuisance, an order to take specific action to remedy the nuisance or to remove the animal. Examples of scheme governance orders include an order to record a new by-law or an order declaring that a specific by-law is invalid. With regard to meetings, an order could require the association to call a meeting to deal with specific issues or to declare that a particular resolution is void or invalid. On the issue of management services, an order could require the management agent to comply with the terms of his contract of employment or the applicable code of conduct. In respect of works pertaining to private and common areas, the adjudicator may order the association to carry out repairs or to ratify a reasonable proposal to make improvements or alterations to common areas rejected by the general meeting on specified terms. In respect of general issues, the adjudicator could order that the applicant be allowed access to information or documents.
The ombud must reject the application if the relief sought is not within the jurisdiction of the service; the applicant does not confirm that he or she wants to proceed; or if the ombud is satisfied that the dispute should be dealt with in a court of law.87
On acceptance of an application and after receipt of submissions from affected persons, the ombud must consider whether there is a reasonable prospect of a negotiated settlement and, if so, he must refer the matter to conciliation.88 If conciliation fails, the ombud must refer the application together with any submissions and responses to an adjudicator.89
Once referred to an adjudicator, an ombud plays no role in relation to the substance and outcome of the dispute and the adjudicator acts
84 S. 38. |
85 S. 39. |
86 S. 39(7) (b). |
87 S. 42. |
88 S. 47. |
89 S. 48. |
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independently and impartially in resolving the dispute.90 He must abide by the due process of law, act swiftly and informally and must attempt to avoid technical points. He is not obliged to apply the exclusionary rules of evidence and is free to request further information, documentation and inspection of the community scheme concerned.91 The parties are not entitled to legal representation unless they agree or the adjudicator concludes that it is unreasonable to expect parties to conduct their own case.92
After consideration, the adjudicator must grant or reject each part of the relief sought; apportion the liability for cost; complete a statement setting out the reasons for his order and inform the parties of their right of appeal on a question of law within thirty days of pronunciation of the order.93, 94 The order is enforceable in a magistrates’ court or the High Court depending on the amount of money and the relief ordered.95 The ombud service is obliged to publish and make available for inspection by the public a copy of any order made and the reasons for such an order.96
The advantages of an ombud service are that it provides a swift and inexpensive service for the resolution of disputes and day-to-day complaints compared to costly and time-consuming court and arbitration proceedings. The workload of the magistrates’ courts is also reduced.
The fact that the national office of the ombud service must provide education, information and documentation to the public raises awareness among owners, management boards and other affected persons about their rights and obligations in community schemes.97 Furthermore, the national office is compelled to monitor and promote good community scheme governance.98
Moreover, the service provided by the ombud service is professional. The adjudicators and conciliators must have suitable qualifications and experience in adjudication, conciliation and community scheme governance and the national office is obliged to provide suitable training.99, 100 Moreover, contrary to their Singapore counterparts who work for a pittance, they are generally appointed on good salaries and on a fulltime basis.101
Besides dispute resolution, the national office is also obliged to regulate, monitor and control the quality of all sectional titles scheme
90 |
S. 35. |
91 Ss. 50 and 51. |
92 S. 52. |
93 |
Ss. 53 and 54. |
94 S. 57. |
95 S. 56. |
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96 |
S. 58(2). |
97 S. 4(2). |
98 |
S. 4(2)(a) and (c). |
99 S. 21(2)(b) and (c). |
100 S. 4(1). |
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101 See in general s. 21(3)-(5).
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governance documentation. It must take safe custody of, and provide public access electronically to, such documentation.102
The maintenance and repair of community scheme buildings is promoted by the provision that in the event of insufficient provision for maintenance in the budget, any owner may now approach the ombud service for an order declaring that incorrectly determined contributions are adjusted to a ‘correct or reasonable amount’.103 This is further fortified by the provision in the STSMA that the body corporate may recover all contributions (including special contributions104) from the owners of the units at the time of the passing of the resolution by a comparatively swift application to an ombud instead of a costly and time-consuming action in a magistrates’ court.105
102 |
See CSOSA s. 4(1)(c) and (d) and STSMA s. 10(2) and (5). |
103 CSOS s. 39(1)(c). |
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104 |
STSMA s. 3(3). |
105 Cf STSMA s. 3(2) with STA s. 37(2). |
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General Bibliography
Bibliographies for the individual countries can be found after the general bibliography
G E N E R A L A N D H I S T O R I C A L
Ba¨rmann, J., Wohnungseigentumsgesetz. Kommentar (Munich, C.H. Beck, 1958) Batlle Va´squez., M., La propiedad de cases por pisos (5th edn, Marfil, SA Alcoy,
1960)
Berger, A., Encyclopedic Dictionary of Roman Law (New York, American Philosophical Society, 1953)
Berger, C.J., ‘Condominium – Shelter on a Statutory Foundation’, Colum.L.Rev 63 (1963), p. 987
Bernard, R., Le Proprie´taire d’Appartement, ses droits, ses obligations et ses rapports de coproprie´te´ (Paris, Librairie ge´ne´rale de droit & de jurisprudence, 1929)
Buckland, W.W., and McNair, A.D., Roman Law and Common Law (Cambridge University Press, 1952)
Butera, A., Comproprieta` di case per piani (Turin, Unione tipografico-editrice, 1933)
Carcopino, J., Daily Life in Ancient Rome (London, Routledge, 1940)
Clurman, D., The Business Condominium. A New Form of Business Property Ownership
(New York, John Wiley & Sons, 1973)
´
Cuq, E., Etudes sur le Droit Babylonienne (Paris, P. Geuthner, 1929)
‘Etudes sur les contrats de l’e´poque de la premie`re dynastie babylonienne’,
´
Nouvelle Revue Historique de Droit Franc¸aise et Etranger (1910), p. 423
Davis, I., ‘Condominium and the Strata Titles Act’, Can. Bar J 9 (1966), p. 469 DiGiovanni, C. M., ‘Condominiums in downtown public parking lot rights:
a creative city planning tool’, Santa Clara LR (1983), p. 607
Ferrer, A., and Stecher, K., Law of Condominium, with Forms, Statutes and Regulations
(Oxford, New Hampshire, Equity Public Corporation, 1967)
Ferrini, C., ‘Gli estratti di Guiliano Ascalonita’ in Arangio-Ruiz, V. (ed.), Opere di Contardo Ferrini I Studi di diritto roman bizantino (Milan, Hoepli, 1929, p. 443)
‘La proprieta` divisa dei diverse piani di una casa’ in Ciapessoni, P., (ed.)
Opere di Contardo Ferrini IV Studi Vari di Diritto Romano e Moderno (Milan, Hoepli, 1930, p. 131)
611
612 g e n e ra l b i b l i o g ra p h y
Fietz, G., Die Entwicklung des Stockwerkseigentums unter besonderer Beru¨cksichtigung der Verha¨ltnisse in Deutschland und Frankreich (Doctoral thesis, University of Hamburg, 1955)
Flattet, G., La propriete´ par etages (Basel, Helbing & Lichtenhahn, 1956)
Frier, B.W., Landlords and Tenants in Imperial Rome (Princeton University Press, 1980)
Goepfert, A., Das Stockwerkseigentum (Doctoral thesis, University of Heidelberg, 1952)
Huber, E., System und Geschichte des Schweizerischen Privatrechts, vol 3 (Basel, C. Detloff, 1886–1894)
Judy, H.L. & Wittie, R.A., ‘Uniform Condominium Act – Selected Key Issues’, Real Prop.Prob.& Trust J 15 (1978), p. 437
´ ´
Julliot, C.L., Traite-Formulaire de la Division des Maisons par Etages et par Appartements (Paris, Journal des Notaires et des Avocats, 1927)
Leyser, J., ‘The ownership in flats. A comparative study’, International and Comparative Law Quarterly 7 (1958), p. 33
Marchi, E.C.S., A Propriedade Horizontal no Direito Romano (Sao Paulo, EDUSP, 1995)
Maroi, F., ‘La proprieta` degli alberi separata da quelle del fondo’ Studia et Documenta Historiae et Iuris, (1935), p. 349
Meincke, J.P., ‘Superficies solo cedit’, Zeitschrift der Savigny Stiftung (Romanistische Abteilung) 88 (1971), p. 136
Mo¨ ller, E., Die Problematik des Raumund Stockwerkseigentum (Doctoral thesis, University of Frankfurt am Maine, 1937)
Natelson, R.G., ‘Comments on the historiography of condominium: The myth of Roman origin’, Oklahoma City University LR (1987), p. 17
Nezikin, S., Babylonian Talmud. Baba Mezia (London, Soncino Press, 1935) Note ‘Cubes of air: Planning a condominium development under the
Minnesota Act’, William Mitchell LR (1974), p. 89
Pappulias, D., ‘Zur Geschichte der Superficies und des Stockwerkseigentum’,
Zeitschrift der Savigny-Stiftung (Romanistische Abteilung) (1906), p. 363 Racciatti, H., Propiedad por Pisos o por Departamentos (2nd edn, Buenos Aires,
Ediciones Depalma, 1958)
Riccobono, S., Dal diritto romano classico al diritto moderno (Palermo, L. Gaipa, 1915)
Roberts, J. (ed.), Oxford Dictionary of the Classical World (Oxford University Press, 2005)
Sachau, E., Syrische Rechtsbu¨cher (Berlin, Reimer, 1907)
Samuels, L. H., ‘The condominium existed in Biblical times’, New York LJ (26 Jul 1963), p. 4
Schmidlin, B., Die ro¨mische Rechtsregeln (Vienna, Bo¨ hlau Verlag, 1970) Schreiber, A.M., ‘The Lateral Housing Development – Condominium or Home
Owners Association?’, U.Pa. L.Rev. 117 (1969), p. 1104
Visco, A., Le case in condominio. Trattao teo`rico-pra`tico vol 1 (Milan, Giuffre´, 1967) Von Gierke, O., Deutches Privatrecht vol 2 (Leipzig, Duncker & Humblot, 1905) Weiss, E., Institutionen des ro¨mische Privatrechts (Basel, Mittelbach, 1949)
Bibliography by jurisdictions represented
A U S T R I A
Call, G., ‘Zur Begru¨ ndung und zum Erwerb von Wohnungseigentum’, wobl (2002), p. 110
Ehrlich, D., ‘Maßnahmen gegen einen pflichtwidrig handelnden Wohnungseigentu¨ mer’, immolex (2012), p. 46
Hausmann, E.M., ‘§ 21 and § 32’, in Hausmann, T., and Vonkilch, A. (eds),
¨
Osterreichisches Wohnrecht (Vienna, Springer-Verlag, 2007, pp. 301 and 511) Hausmann, T., ‘§ 2 and § 8 and § 35 and § 36’, in Hausmann, T., and
Vonkilch, A. (eds), O¨ sterreichisches Wohnrecht (Vienna, Springer-Verlag, 2007, pp. 3, 68, 554 and 558)
Kassowitz, R., ‘Zusammenhang zwischen Wohnungseigentumsvertrag, Nutzwertfestsetzung und Grundbuchseintragung’, wobl (2002), p. 354
Kothbauer, C., ‘Haussprecher und Eigentu¨ mervertreter im Wohnungseigentum’, immolex (2009), p. 324
‘Verfahrensrechtliches zur Verwalterku¨ ndigung im Wohnungseigentum’, immolex (2010), p. 228
‘Zur Mitteilung der Verwalterku¨ ndigung im Wohnungseigentum’, immolex (2012), p. 96
Lo¨ cker, H., ‘§ 18 and § 24 and § 27 and § 28 and § 29’, in Hausmann, T., and
¨
Vonkilch, A. (eds), Osterreichisches Wohnrecht (Vienna, Springer-Verlag, 2007), pp. 200, 328, 403, 419 and 454
Pittl, R., and Prader, C., ‘Erwerbersicherung und Treuha¨nderpflichten beim grundbu¨ cherlichen Sicherungsmodell im Bautra¨ gervertrag’, wobl (2011), p. 125
Prader, C., ‘Doppelgleisigkeit bei Verwalterku¨ ndigung und Neubestellung’, immolex (2007), p. 326
‘Verwaltung nach dem WEG 2002’, immolex (2002), p. 202
Reiber, A., ‘Die Willensbildung der Eigentu¨ mergemeinschaft’, immolex (2012), p. 233
Report ‘Empfehlungen fu¨ r die Ermittlung der Nutzwerte nach dem Wohnungseigentumsgesetz 2002’, Der Sachversta¨ndige 34 (2010), p. 148
Report of the Judiciary Committee on the WEG 1948, 676 BlgNR 5. GP p. 1 Schernthanner, G., ‘Der Kfz-Abstellplatz im Wohnungseigentumsrecht – Was
a¨ ndert sich durch das neue WEG 2002?’, immolex (2002), p. 208
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¨
Stabentheiner, J., ‘Das neue Wohnungseigentumsrecht im Uberblick’, immolex (2002), p. 163
‘Das Rechtsinstitut des Wohnungseigentums im o¨ sterreichischen Recht’, ZMR (1997), p. 212 — ‘Delogierungspra¨ vention – Eigentu¨ mervertreter’ in Bundesministerium fu¨ r Justiz – Zivilrechtssektion (eds), Festschrift Gerhard Hopf (Vienna, Manz, 2007, pp. 179 and 187ff)
‘Die miet-und wohnungseigentumsrechtlichen Teile der Wohnrechtsnovelle 2006 (Teil II)’, wobl (2006), p. 277
‘Entstehungsgeschichte und innovatorischer Gehalt des Wohnungseigentumsgesetzes 2002’, wobl (2002), p. 101
Stingl, W., and Ja¨ ger, M., ‘Sanierung von Wohnungseigentumsanlagen’, immolex (2008), p. 178
Terlitza, U., ‘Zur Abgrenzung von Verwaltung und Verfu¨ gung – eine dogmatische Frage von eminenter praktischer Bedeutung’, wobl (2011), p. 185
Tschu¨ tscher, J., ‘Neues zur Verwaltung im Wohnungseigentum’, immolex (2006), p. 276
Vonkilch, A., ‘§ 4 and § 16 and § 26 and § 30 and § 37 and § 40 and § 43’,
¨
in Hausmann, T., and Vonkilch, A. (eds), Osterreichisches Wohnrecht (Vienna, Springer-Verlag, 2007, pp. 43, 168, 390, 479, 587, 618 and 636)
Vonkilch, A., ‘Wirkung der Wohnungseigentumsbegru¨ ndung auf ein bestehendes Mietverha¨ ltnis (§ 4 WEG 2002)’, wobl (2002), p. 123
Wu¨ rth, H., ‘Sonderprobleme der WE-Begru¨ ndung: Kfz-Abstellpla¨tze, Vorratsteilung, obligatorische Begru¨ ndung’, wobl (2002), p. 118
B E L G I U M
Aeby, F., Gevers, E., and Tombroff, C., La proprie´te´ des appartements. Ses aspects juridiques et pratiques (3rd edn, Brussels, E. Bruylant, 1983)
Baekeland, C., ‘Medehuurders en de evenwichtsleer van artikel 544 BW: het begrip “nabuurschap”’, TBBR (2010), p. 26
Baudoncq, F., ‘Van gsm-manie naar mobilofobie?’, Tijdschrift voor Belgisch Burgerlijk Recht (2003), p. 513
Baudoncq, F., and Stevens, D., ‘De verwijdering van GSM-antennes op grond van artikel 544 B.W. of de groeipijnen van een stralende rechtspraak’,
Notarieel Fiscaal Maandblad (2003), p. 33
Carette, N., and Swinnen, K., ‘(Bijna) 3 jaar nieuwe Appartementswet: Een rechtspraak overzicht en de wet van 15 Mei 2012’, in Carette, N. (ed.),
Appartementsrecht I: Stand van Zaken en Topics (Antwerpen, Intersentia, 2013, p. 1)
Casman, H., ‘Bondige toelichting over de nieuwe regeling inzake appartementenrecht’, Nieuwe wetgeving (Gent, 1994), p. 93
‘Statuten van het appartementsgebouw, wat de recente rechtspraak ons leert’, in Sagaert, V., and Rommel, G. (eds), Appartementsrecht (Bruges, die Keure, 2008, p. 38)
Celis, C., ‘De mede-eigenaars verzekerd, of het raakvlak tussen de wet op de appartementsmede-eigendom en de verzekeringswetgeving’, Tijdschrift voor Vastgoed 3 (2004), p. 177