3. Characteristics of the word as the basic unit of the language

Words are the central elements of language system. They face both ways: they are the biggest units of morphology and the smallest units of syntax. Words can be separated in an utterance by other such units and can be used in isolation. Uniting meaning and form, a word is composed of one or more morphemes each consisting of one or more spoken sounds or their written representation.

Morphemes are also meaningful units but they can not be used independently, they are always parts of words whereas words can be used as a complete utterance (e.g., Listen!). Unlike words, morphemes cannot be divided into smaller meaningful words.

The definition of a word is one of the most difficult in linguistics because the simplest word has many different aspects. It has a sound form and morphological structure; when used in actual speech, it may occur in different word-forms, different syntactic functions and signal various meanings. Being the central element of any language system, the word is a sort of focus for the problems of Phonology, Lexicology, Syntax, Morphology and also for some other sciences that have to deal with language and speech, such as philosophy and psychology. All attempts to characterize the word are necessarily specific for each domain of science and are therefore considered one-sided by the representatives of all the other domains.

The word has been defined semantically, syntactically, phonologically and by combining various approaches.

Many eminent scholars of the former USSR, such as V.V. Vinogradov, A.I. Smirnitsky, O.S.Akhmanova, M.D. Stepanova, A.A. Ufimtseva, greatly contributed to creating a word theory based upon the materialistic understanding of the relationship between word and thought, on the one hand, and language and society, on the other. The main points may be summarized in the following definition.

A w o r d is the smallest unit of a given language capable of functioning alone and characterized by p o s i t i o n a l m o b i l i t y within a sentence, m o r p h o l o g i c a l u n i n t e r r u p t a b i l i t y and s e m a n t i c i n t e g r i t y. All these criteria are necessary because they create a basis for the oppositions between the word and the phrase, the word and the phoneme and the morpheme; their common feature is that they are all units of the language, their difference lies in the fact that the phoneme is not significant, and a morpheme cannot be used as a complete utterance.

4. Motivation as a language universal. Correlation of phonetic, morphological and semantic types of motivation in the lexical units of English and Ukrainian

The term m o t i v a t i o n is used to denote the relationship existing between the phonemic or morphemic composition and structural pattern of the word, on the one hand, and its meaning, on the other. There are three main types of motivation: phonetical motivation, morphological motivation and semantic motivation.

1. When there is a certain similarity between the sound that make up words and their meaning, the motivation is p h o n e t i c a l. All phonetically motivated words have their sounding structure somewhat similar to the sounds which they convey. Due to this, some of these English, Ukrainian and other languages' words thus motivated sound almost or quite alike. For example: to cade - кудкудакати, cock-a-doodle-doo - кукуріку, bang - бух/бухнути, bark - гав/гавкати, buzz - дзижчати, chirp/chirrup - цвірінькати, cuckoo - кукукати/ кукувати, crack - трісь/ тріщати, gagle - ґелґотати, hey! - гей!, hiss - шипіти/сичати, hoop - 'гукати (сигналити), howl - вити, smack (one's lips) цмокати, moo - мукати, mewl - нявкати, baa / bar/ бе-е, бекати (вівці), etc. Here the sounds of a word are imitative of sounds in nature because what is referred to is a sound.

These are naturally far from all the words whose notional meaning in the contrasted languages is based on sound imitation. Nevertheless, their number in comparison to other types of motivated words is not large, constituting in English about 1.08 % and in Ukrainian only about 0.8 %.

It is also suggested that sounds themselves may be emotionally expressive which accounts for the phonetical motivation in certain words. Initial / f / and / p /, e.g., are felt as expressing scorn, disapproval or disgust: pooh! fie! fiddle-sticks, etc. The sound-cluster / iŋ / is imitative of sound or swift movement: ring, sing, swing, fling, etc.

2. The main criterion in morphological motivation is the relationship between morphemes. Hence, all one-morpheme words are morphologically non-motivated. Morphological motivation is “relative”, i.e. the degree of motivation may be different. The word “endless”, e.g., is completely motivated as both the lexical meaning of the component morphemes and the meaning of the pattern are perfectly transparent. The word “cranberry” is only partially motivated because of the absence of the lexical meaning in the morpheme “cran-”. The words “matter”, “repeat” are non-motivated because the connection between the structure of the lexical unit and its meaning is completely conventional.

The morphological motivation in the contrasted languages re­mains the major one. It is characteristic of numerous notional words, in which it is clearly indicated by the affixal morphemes. For example, by suffixes: doer one who does smth; flyer one who flies; detainee one who is detained; examinee one who is examined; changable that which is subjected to change/can be changed; movable smth. that can be moved, etc. A similar function may be performed by some prefixal morphemes in both contrasted languages. Cf: asleep the one who is in the state of sleeping; bedew to cover with dew; overturn to turn smth. over; ex-president the one who was president, etc.

Similarly in Ukrainian: оповідач той, хто оповідає/розповідає; писар той, хто пише; співець той, хто співає; ношений якого (що) носили; смажений якого (що) смажили; читаючий який читає, носач той, що має великого носа; митець той, хто творить якийсь вид мистецтва (швидко чи дуже якісно/майстерно) малює, будує, співає, танцює; злітати підніматися вище попереднього місця перебування; переказати (щось) розповісти вдруге вже раз сказане чи написане; передісторія історія, що була перед цією/відомою історією; вчетверте те, що повторюється четвертий раз; поверх (чогось) – щось понад чимось чи додатково до чогось, etc.

Morphologically motivated words in the contrasted languages natu­rally constitute the largest part of their motivated lexicons: 88,5 % in English and 91.8 % in Ukrainian.

3. Semantic motivation of lexical units is based on the co-existence of direct and figurative meaning of the same word within the same synchronous system. E.g., “mouth” denotes a part of a human face and can be metaphorically applied to any opening: the mouth of a river, the mouth of a furnace. This is expressed by many semantically motivated words and word-groups in both contrasted languages. Cf. foot of a mountain підніжжя гори, hand/ hands of a watch стрілка/стрілки (схожі на руки) годинника, to keep house вести домашнє господарство, an ancient house стародавній рід (династія); the house of Tudor династія Тюдорів; the first/second house перший/другий сеанс (у кінотеатрі); bed of roses легке/розкішне життя; bed of a river русло річки; bed of honour поле бою; arm рука, but: secular arm світська влада; the arm of the law сила закону; the arm of the sea вузька затока; the arms of a coat рукава (піджака, пальта); the arms of a tree великі гілляки дерева; the arms of a chair бильця (крісла), a coat of arms герб, etc.

Many similar examples of semantic motivation of words are also ob­served in Ukrainian: легка/важка рука (легко/ дошкульно б'є), легкий/ важкий на руку, липкі руки/липкий на руку (злодій); купатися в розкошах, купатися в славі/купатися в промінні південного сонця, братися за справу (діло), etc. Their meanings are very trans­parent and mostly need no further explanation.

Some words denoting in the contrasted languages popular names of flowers, trees, birds, and animals have a transparent etymological motiva­tion as well. Thus, in English and Ukrainian bluet (flower) is васильок, bluebell is дзвоник, blue-bottle is васильок which is blue (синій), black­bird is чорний дрізд, blackcock is тетерук, black berry means ожина, horse-tail/cat's tail means хвощ, redwood means секвоя, umbrella-tree means американська магнолія, violet means фіалка. More simi­lar examples may also be found in English and Ukrainian: жовтець (yellow gold), чорниця (bilberry), чорнобривці (French marigold), чорногуз (чорне гузно), чорнослив (smocked prunes), соняшник (sunflower), куцохвостий (заєць), круторогі (воли), серпокрилець (стриж).

A brilliant example of etymological semantic motivation present in Ukrainian and Byelorussian (or Polish) names of months. Cf. січень (сніг січе), лютий (мороз лютує), березень (береза сік пускає), квітень (перші квіти – проліски з'являються і зацвітають), липень (липа зацвітає), серпень (серпами жали і жнуть збіжжя).

Semantical1у motivated lexical units constitute in English about 10 % and in Ukrainian about 7.4 % of their total motivated lexicons.

Compound words are either morphologically or semantically motivat­ed in the contrasted languages. Their motivation is morphological if the meaning of the whole is based on the direct meaning of the components (e.g., headache is pain in the head, air-crew is a crew of an aircraft; after-effect effect that occurs after some action; to blackboard to write on a black board.), and semantic if the combination of components is used figuratively (headache – anything or anyone very annoying, good-neighbourhood being near good neighbours, classroom (room for classes or for schoolchildren), drawbridge, halfpenny, landowner, mine thrower (thrower of mines), note-book (book for notes), self-defense, a schoolboy, Zululand (land of the Zulus), etc.

Or in Ukrainian: вільнодумець (думає про волю), добродійник (робить добро), домовласник (володіє домом), електродояр, кожум'яка (мне шкуру тварин), кораблеводіння, користолюбство (любить корисливість), лизогуб (облизує губи), лісовоз, маслоробня, марнотратство (витрата чогось без користі, марно), etc.

Generally, however, a great many words in English, Ukrainian and in other languag­es have no clear motivation, i. e. their etymology remains obscure, far from explicable at present. It has been lost in the course of semantic development of these words. As a result, one can not say why the "sun" is named the sun and the "head" or the "heart" has been named this way and not otherwise. Because of the obscure etymology most words and some collocations/idiomatic expressions remain non-motivated in the contrasted languages. In other words, their motivation is impossible to identify nowadays on the basis of their componential meanings.