Encyclopedia of Prehistory, Volume 4, Europe

Renfrew, Colin (1969). "The Autonomy of the South-east European Copper Age." Proceedings of the Prehistoric Society 36: 12-47.

Todorova, Henrietta (1978). The Eneolithic in Bulgaria in the Fifth Millennium B.C. Oxford: British Archaeological Reports, International Series (Supplementary).

Whittle, Alasdair (1996). Europe in the Neolithic: The Creation of New Worlds. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

SUBTRADITIONS

Cucuteni A, AB, B-Tripolye BI,

BII, CIII (Ariusd for the

Western Regional Variant)

TIME PERIOD: 5690+/-50-4950 B.P. (Mantu 1995: 228-

229).

LOCATION: The eastern Carpathian-northwestern Pontic area, from the southeastern Transylvanian plateau in Romania up to the Dnieper river in Ukraine. A diffusion in Phase A to southern Moldavia creates in the Gumelnita-Karanovo VI-Kodjadermen subtradition the Stoicani-Aldeni (Bolgrad) (cf. Dragomir 1983: Ill) variant of Gumelnita (A and B)-Karanovo VI-Kodja- dermen. In the first phase, the subtradition covers a space between southeastern Transylvania up to the Bug river, extends in the second phase up to the Dniester river, overlapping the Stoicani-Aldeni (Bolgrad) variant, and withdraws from Transylvania.

DIAGNOSTIC MATERIAL ATTRIBUTES: Fine pottery, in the

shape of globular amphorae with tronconical bottoms, decorated with painted geometrical and figurative friezes, plates with tronconical stands, double vases, and anthropomorphic vases are the primary diagnostic features of the Cucuteni-Tripolye subtradition. Characteristic for Phase A is the incised bichrome and trichrome geometric painting; for Phase AB, the bichrome and trichrome geometric and figurative painting; and for Phase B, the monochrome figurative painting as well as bichrome and trichrome geometrical patterns. Another diagnostic feature of the subtradition is the shell-tempered ceramics of steppe origin (Marine- scu-Bilcu 1991: 17). Incised and painted clay female figurines (more realistic in the last phase), copper spiral bracelets, copper ax-adzes, adze-chisels, cruciform axadzes (Chernykh 1992: 37, 41), knives, daggers, triangular projectile points of flint, medium-size flint blades, and trapezoidal axes of hard stone, surface architecture

Southeastern European Late Chalcolithic 371

with platforms are also characteristic of CucuteniTripolye. There are no necropoles found in this subtradition (Marinescu-Bilcu 1993: 204).

CULTURAL SUMMARY

Environment

Cucuteni-Tripolye evolved during the Atlantic climatic optimum, characterized by hot summers and mild winters, and ended with the beginning of the Subboreal period (Patokova et al. 1989: 117), when an aridization of the climate with a notable difference between summer and winter temperatures occurred (Botzan 1996: 15). The topography of the Cucuteni-Tripolye is varied, from the Carpathian mountains and the Transylvanian plateau to the Moldavian and Volino-Podolic plateaus and the Moldavian, Balti, and Dniester plains. A complex geology, from high mountains and relatively high narrow hills to chernozemic plains, provided a large variety of hard stones, pigments, salt, and copper, as well as good soils for agriculture. Deciduous forests and the North Danube mouth and Dnieper steppes (Monah and Monah 1997: 40) were populated by wild cattle, red deer, roe deer, and wild pigs (Ellis 1984: 5659). An intensive deforestation process for new agricultural lands took place during the tradition. CucuteniTripolye communities also used the rich resources of rivers and lakes (Sorokin 1994: 81).

Settlements

The communities, generally positioned on dominant heights (Florescu 1966: 24) near the sources of water, became larger in Phase AB. Specific for the last phase are the very large flat settlements with 11-12 concentric circles of houses, fortified with ditches and palisades, built in difficult-to-access locations. Cucuteni-Tripolye fortified settlements with a preconceived plan (Marine- scu-Bilcu 1997: 179) and rectangular houses made of wattle and daub seem to be of five kinds: (1) with concentric circles (Marchevici 1981: 176); (2) with adjacent circles; (3) oval; (4) with concentric circles and radial streets; and (5) with concentric circles and straight rows at the periphery (Sorokin 1993: 81). In the western area of the subtradition, the settlements are (1) small (up to 1 ha, up to 20 houses); (2) medium size (up to 2 ha, up to 50 houses); (3) large (up to 5 ha, up to 100 houses); and very large (over 5 ha, up to 100 houses) (Monah and Cucos 1985: 43). In the eastern area,

372Southeastern European Late Chalcolithic

villages are up to 450 hectares and up to 2,800 buildings (Kruts 1989; Smaglij and Videiko 1993). Generally houses in the east area are of three kinds: (1) small (1550 sq m); (2) medium-size (50-100 sq m) and (3) large (over 100 sq m) (Sorokin 1994: 77). In the first phase, there is evidence of an intrasettlement hierarchy between semisubterranean and surface buildings with platforms and in the last phase between surface buildings and specialized two-level buildings containing workshops (Marchevici 1981). Some large settlements had a central open space. Semisubterranean houses were between 4- 20 sq m. Houses made of wattle and daub with wooden structures were rectangular and rarely L-shaped. A continuous demographic intensive growth is assumed to have happened in all phases of the subtradition (Monah and Cucos 1985: 184). A single gigantic village of 300 ha with 1,575 houses sheltered approximately 9,000 people in the last phase of the subtradition (Sorokin 1993: 83). There are also data of larger villages of up to 2,700 houses with a mixed structure of circles, rows, and groups of houses around courtyards (Sorokin 1993: 81). In the southern Bug steppe, the agriculturalist populations of the final phase adopted a new type of settlement, connected to mobile stock breeding. (Shaposhnikova and Tovkailo 1989: 97; Videiko 1994: 17).

Economy

Cucuteni-Tripolye economy was mixed, with an emphasis on cereal cultivation (Dumitrescu et al. 1954: 506; Ianusevici 1976: 199; Nestor et al. 1951: 71). Peas, horse beans, vetch, and lentils (Ianusevici and Marchevich 1971: 3), and grapes (Sorokin 1994) were also cultivated. Wild animals, such as red deer, roe deer, horse, wild pig, and small game, as well as domestic animals, such as cattle, ovicaprids, suides, horses, were consumed (Ellis 1984: 56-59). The horse was domesticated (Gheorghiu 1994: 238; Videiko 1994: 15), and cattle was used for traction (Nandris 1987: 210). In the steppic eastern area of the subtradition, from the colonists' mixed economy of agriculture and herding, nomadic pastoralism evolved (Renfrew 1989: 97) in a gradual transformation (Videiko 1994: 28). Fishing was also practiced in some riverine communities. Wild fruits completed the diet (Dumitrescu 1950: 23; Nestor et al. 1951: 63). In the last phase of the subtradition, there is evidence of a storage strategy (Ellis 1987: 179) with amphorae sheltered in special houses and pit-silos for grains Monah and Monah 1996: 52-53). The principal utensils used by Cucuteni-Tripolye communities were

(l) kitchen ceramic vases with thick walls, some of steppe origin made of shell-tempered clay; (2) prestige

ceramic painted vases with thin walls, fired in kilns; (3) stone tools such as flint blades, trapezoidal axes, triangular flint points; (4) heavy copper axes, knives, daggers, and antlers for plowing. Characteristic ornaments were stag-teeth necklaces, shells violin-shaped clay pendants, copper amulets, beads, and spiral bracelets. Local and imported flint (Boghian 1996: 279-281), hard rocks, copper, silver (Monah and Monah 1997: 82), and gold were processed by craft specialists (Ursachi 1991: 339). Copper was hammered (Chernykh 1992: 41), cast in open molds (Sorokin 1994: 81), or cast by the lost wax method in the last phase (Monah and Monah 1997: 83). There is evidence of workshops for some craft activities (Marchevici 1981: 127).

Decorated ceramic vases with complex curvilinear patterns using templates (Gheorghiu 1998a: 35) were fired in kilns near the clay sources (Marinescu-Bilcu 1997: 172). Some of the ceramic vases were produced by craft specialists with the potter's wheel (Marchevici 1981: 129) in the second and the last phases of the subtradition (Ellis 1984). Salt exploitation (Alexianu et al. 1992: 163) became a specialization (Monah 1991: 394) in the last phase. Unspecialized activities were developed with labor forces from steppe populations; scholars have suggested an incorporation of women from the steppes (Palagutta 1996). There are data of a trade in prestige painted ceramics in the south of the tradition (Lazurca 1991). Cucuteni-Tripolye participated in the earliest long-distance metal trade-network linking the Balkans with the steppes (Lichardus 1991: 766; Pernicka et al. 1997: 146; Tsvek 1996: 109); after the collapse of the southern area tradition, copper production continued in the Cucuteni-Tripolye area (Mantu et al. 1997: 219). A permanent trade activity linked the local elites to the cattle breeding steppe populations from the east (Kruts 1989: 131-132; Movsha 1993: 40-41).

Sociopolitical Organization

The presence of an elite is manifest in the prestige ceramics, hoards in copper and gold (Monah and Monah 1997: 82), and intrasettlement and intersettlement hierarchies. The complex built environment, such as the settlements with a central place, suggests a social organization based on a descent relationship and a division of society into classes. Because the last phase of the Cucuteni-Tripolye Subtradition exhibits an increase in the size of individual residences, as well as territorial expansion, it can be regarded as an assembly of simple chiefdoms (Ellis 1984; Smaglij and Videiko 1993: 63; Videiko 1994: 22). The defensive systems of the settle-

ments using palisaded ditches or earth walls (Florescu 1966: 33) faced with stone (Schmidt 1932: 114-115) could be an index of frequent intersettlement conflicts or of a winter strategy for cattle protection (Nandris 1987: 207), but by no means an index of a menace from the steppe populations (Rassamakin 1994; Videiko 1994: 27,28). The relation with steppe populations was merely one of integration, as the Sarateni Subtradition demonstrates. There is evidence that with an increased aridization of the climate, the exhaustion of agricultural soils together with the expanding herds and a demographic boom led to macrosettlements' collapse and an economic change in the Cucuteni-Tripolye Subtradition (Monah and Cucos 1985: 184).

Religion and Expressive Culture

Cucuteni-Tripolye female figurines suggest a belief in regeneration and fertility (Monah 1997). Fertility rituals were practiced by breakage of decorated female clay figurines (Monah 1997: 97). Phalloi were also used in fertility rituals. The elaborate disposal of female figurines in vases, in architectural models (Cucos 1993: 61), or in domestic or cultic architectural spaces suggests the complexity of these ceremonies. Ovens seem to have played a certain role in domestic cults (Monah 1997: 31). The burials of children under house platforms in pits, together with decorated vases and food offerings (Dumitrescu 1957) of animals (Tsvek 1996: 99) or vases (Marinescu-Bilcu 1997: 169) as human substitutes, imply a belief linking descent with households and an elaborate rituality. The absence of necropoles in all the subtradition and the decorative patterns of the figurines suggest an off-ground funerary ritual implying wrapping of the body (Gheorghiu 1998b: 4-5). Secondary burials of skulls prove a syncretic cult of the head and of ancestors. The representation of human figures in the first Cucuteni-Tripolye phase is geometrical, but in the last phase a realistic style emerges, depicting humans and animals. In all the subtradition, artistic representations are made of clay and metal, except for a few made of stone.

References

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Boghian, Dumitru (1996). "Unele consideratii asupra utilajului Iitic al comunitatilor Precucuteni-Cucuteni-Tripolye." In BibUotheca Memoriae Antiqvitatis, ed. G. Dumitroaia and D. Monah. Piatra Neamt: Complexul Muzeal Judetean Neamt, 277-342.

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Botzan, Marcu (1996). Mediu si vietuire in spatiul carpato-dunareano- pontic. Bucharest: Editura Academiei Romane.

Chernykh, Evgeny, N. (1992). Ancient Metallurgy in the USSR: The Early Metal Age. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Cucos, Stefan (1993). "Complexe rituale cucuteniene de la Ghelaiesti, judo Neamt." Studii si cercetari de istorie veche si arheologie 44: 59-80.

Dragomir, loan T. (1983). Eneoliticul din sud-estul Romaniei: Aspectul cultural Stoicani-Aldeni. Bucharest: Academiei.

Dumitrescu, Hortensia (1950). "Cercetari arheologice la Valeni, judo Neamt." Studii si Cercetari de Istorie Veche 1,2: 19-51.

Dumitrescu, Hortensia (1957). "Decouvertes concernant un rite funeraire magique dans l'aire de la civilisation de la ceramique peinte du type Cucuteni-Tripolye." Dacia, I: 97-116.

Dumitrescu, Vladimir, Hortensia Dumitrescu, Mircea Petrescu-Dim- bovita, and N. Gostar (1954). Habasesti, Monograjie arheologica.

Bucharest: Academiei.

Ellis, Linda (1984). The Cucuteni-Tripolye Culture: A Study in Technology and the Origins oj Complex Society. Oxford: British Archaeological Reports, International Series.

Ellis, Linda (1987). "Population Growth, Food Storage and Ceramic Manufacturing Centers in Pre-Bronze Age Europe." In Bibliotheca Archaeologica Iassiensis, ed. M. Petrescu-Dimbovita, N. Ursulescu, D. Monah, and V. Chirica. Iasi: Universite "AI. I. Cuza," 175-191.

Florescu, Adrian C. (1966). "Observatii asupra sistemului de fortificare al asezarilor cucuteniene din Moldova." Arheologia Moldovei 4: 2335.

Gheorghiu, Dragos (1994). "Horse Head Sceptres-First Images of Yoked Horses." Journal oj Indo-European Studies 22: 221-250.

Gheorghiu, Dragos (1998a). "Clay, Twigs, Threads and Ritual: Ceramic "Industrial" Decoration in the East European Neolithic and Cha1colithic." In British Archaeological Reports, International Series, ed. S. Milliken and M. Vidale. Oxford: Archaeopress, 35-58.

Gheorghiu, Dragos (1998b). "An Eneolithic Funerary Ritual: Ceramic Evidence." XIII International Congress oj Prehistoric and Protohistoric Sciences 4: 3-8.

lanusevichi, Z. V. (1976). Kulturnaie rasteniia iugo-zapada SSSR po paleobotaniceskim issledovaniiam. Kishinev: Stiintsa.

lanusevichi, Z. V., and V. I. Marchevich (1971). Especes de plantes cultiV(!es des stations primitives au sud-ouest de I'URSS. Moscow: Les rapports et les communications de la delegation des archeologues de I'urss au VIn Congres international des sciences prehistoriques et protohistoriques. Belgrade.

Kruts, V. A. (1989). "K istorii naselennia tripolskoy kultury v mezhdurechie Yuzhnogo Buga i Dnepra." Pervobytnaya arkheologia: M ateriali i issledovaniya: 117-132.

Lazurca, Elena (1991). "Ceramica cucuteniana in contextul asezarii gumelnitene de la Carcaliu (jud. Tu1cea)." Peuce 10: 13-19.

Lichardus, Jan (1991). "Die Kupferzeit als historische Epoche: Versuch einer Deutung." In Die KupJerzeit als historische Epoche, vol. 2, ed. J. Lichardus. Bonn: R. Habelt, 763-800.

Mantu, Cornelia Magda (1995). "Cateva consideratii privind cronologia absoluta a Neo-Eneoliticului din Romania." Studii si Cercetari de Istorie Veche si Arheologie 46, 3-4: 213-235.

Mantu, Cornelia Magda, G. Dumitroaia, and A. Tsaravopulos (1997).

Cucuteni: The Last Great ChalcoUthic Civilization oj Europe.

Bucharest: Athena Publishing House.

Marchevici, V. (1981). Pozdne-Tripol'skie Plemena Severnoj Moldavii.

Kishinev: Stiintsa

Marinescu-Bi1cu, Silvia (1991). "Sur quelques problemes du Neolithique et du Eneolithique a l'est des Carpates Orientales." Dacia 35: 5-59.

Marinescu-Bi1cu, Silvia (1993). "Les Carpathes Orientales et la Moldavie: Atlas du Neolitique Europeen, L'Europe Orientale." In

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Etudes et Recherches Archeologiques de I'Universite de Liege, ed. M. Otte, Liege: Universite de Liege, 191-241.

Marinescu-Bilcu, Silvia (1997). "Considerations on the Inner Organization of Some Settlements Belonging to Cultures of PrecucuteniCucuteni Complexes." Cultura si civilizatie la Dunarea de los 15:

165-201.

Monah, Dan, and Cucos, Stefan (1985). Asezarile culturii Cucuteni din Romania, lasi: Junimea.

Monah, Felicia, and Monah, Dan (1996). "Macrorestes vegetaux decouverts dans les niveaux Cucuteni A2 et BI de Poduri-"Dealul Ghindaru." In Bibliotheca Memoriae Antiqvitatis, ed. G. Dumitroaia and D. Monah. Piatra Neamt: Complexul Muzeal Judetean Neamt,

49~2.

Monah, Dan, and Felicia Monah (1997). "The Last Great Chalcolithic Civilization of Europe." In Cucuteni, the Last Great Chalcolithic Civilization of Europe, ed. C. M. Mantu, G. Dumitroaia, and A. Tsaravopoulos. Bucharest: Athena Publishing and Printing House, 15-96.

Monah, Dan (1991). "L'Exploitation du sel dans les Carpates Orientales et ses rapports avec la culture Cucuteni-Tripolye."

Bibliotheca Archaeologica Iassiensis 4: 387-400.

Monah, Dan, ed. (1997). Plastica antropomorfa a culturii CucuteniTripolye. Bibliotheca Memoria Antiquitatis. Piatra Neamt: Complexul Muzeal Judetean Neamt.

Movsha, T. G. (1993). "Vzaemovidnosyny stepovykh i zemlerobskikh v epohku eneoliturannebronzovogo viku." Arkheologiya 3: 36-51.

Nandris, John G. (1987). "Romanian Ethnoarchaeology and the Emergence and Development of Cucuteni in the European Context." In Bibliotheca Archaeologica Iassiensis, ed. M. PetrescuDimbovita, N. Ursulescu, D. Monah, and V. Chirica. Iasi: Universite "AI. I. Cuza," 201-222.

Nestor, Ion, Alexandrina Alexandrescu, Eugen Comsa, Eugenia Zaharia-Petrescu, and Vlad Zirra (1951). "Sapaturile de pe santierul Valea Jijiei (Iasi-Botosani-Dorohoi) in anuI1950." Studii si cercetari de istorie veche 2: 51-76.

Palagutta, Ilia Vladimirovich (1996). "K probeme svjazej TripolyaCucuteni s kulturami eneolita stepnojpolosy Severnogo Pricernomorja." Vestnik Moskovskogo universiteta 8.

Patokova, E. F., V. G. Petrenko, N. B. Burdo, and L. Y. Polishchuk

(1989). Pamyatniki tripolskoy kultury v Severo-Zapadnom Prichernomorye. Kiev: Naukova dumka.

Pernicka, Ernest, F. Begemann, S. Schmitt-Strecker, H. Todorova, and I. Kuleff (1997). "Prehistoric Copper in Bulgaria: Its Composition and Provenance." Eurasia Antiqua 3: 41-179.

Rassamakin, Yury Y. (1994 [1995)). "The Main Directions of the Development of Early Pastoral Societies of Northern Pontic Zone: 4500--2400 B.C. (Pre-Yamnaya Cultures and Yamnaya Culture)." In

Nomadism and Pastoralism in the Circle of Baltic-Pontic Early Agrarian Cultures: 5000--1650 B.e., Baltic-Pontic Studies, vol. 2, ed. YY. Rassamakin. Poznan: Adam Mickiewicz University Eastern Institute, Institute of Prehistory, 29-70.

Renfrew, Colin (1989). Archaeology and Language. The Puzzle of Indo-European Origins. London: Penguin Books.

Schmidt, Hubert (1932). Cucuteni in der Oberen Moldau, Rumaenien: Die befestigte Siedlung mit bemalter Keramik von der Steinkupferzeit in bis die vollentwickelte Bronzezeit. Berlin-Leipzig: Verlag von Walter de Gruyter.

Shaposhnikova, O. G., and N. T. Tovkailo, (1989). "Nekotoriye itogi issledovania mnogosloyonogo poselenia Bugach na Yuzhnom Buge."

Pervobytnaya arkheologiya: Materiali i issledovaniya: 97-105.

Smaglij, N. M., and Mihailo Y. Videiko (1993). "Tripolski protomista." Arkheologiya 3: 52~3.

Sorokin, Victor (1993). "Modalitatile de organizare a asezarilor complexului cultural Cucuteni-Tripolye." Arheologia Moldovei 16: XVI 69-86.

Sorokin, Victor (1994). "Culturi eneolitice din Moldova." ThracoDacica 15, 1-2: 67-92.

Tsvek, Elena (1996). "Structure of the Eastern-Tripolye Culture." In

Bibliotheca Memoriae Antiqvitatis, ed. G. Dumitroaia and D. Monah. Piatra Neamt: Complexul Muzeal Judetean Neamtm, 89114.

Ursachi, Vasile (1991). "Un Depot d'objets de parure eneolithiques de Brad, com. Negri, Dep. de Bacau." In Bibliotheca Archaeologica Iassensis, vol. 4, ed. V. Chirica and D. Monah. Iasi: Universite "AI. I. Cuza," 335-386.

Videiko, Mihailo Y. (1994). "Tripolye-'Pastoral' Contacts: Facts and Character of the Interactions: 4800--3200 BC, Nomadism and Pastoralism in the Circle of Baltic-Pontic Early Agrarian cultures: 5000-- 1650 Be." Baltic-Pontic Studies 2: 5-28.

Gumelnita A, B-Karanovo VI-

Kodjadermen (Stoicani-Aldeni-

Bolgrad for the Northeastern

Variant; Varna for the Black Sea

Coast Variant)

TIMEPERlon: 570O-c.5200 B.P. (Lichardus 1988: 89). The many regional groups make difficult an accurate dating of the subtradition (Lichardus 1988: 84).

LOCATION: Central, eastern, and southeastern Bulgaria in the south, the Lower Danube basin and Dobrouja in southeastern Romania, and the south of Moldova.

Cylindrical and bitronconical bowls and plates decorated in an early phase with graphite, then by incision, slip, paint, or powdered with gold, some worked on the potter's wheel, large storage vases, askoi and rhyta, zoomorphic and anthropomorphic vases are the principal diagnostic features of Gumelnita A, B-Karanovo VI-Kodjadermen. Clay, bone, and marble female figurines, schematically or realistically represented, massive trapezium chipped-flint axes, long flint blades, triangular projectile points of flint, massive copper axes cast in molds (Chernykh 1992: 40, 41), massive gold or sheet gold symbolic objects, fortified tell settlements, female (Lichardus and Lichar- dus-Itten 1985: 379) funerary clay masks in cenotaphs (Ivanov 1978: 16), burials with extensive grave goods are also specific for this subtradition.

CULTURAL SUMMARY

Environment

The Gumelnita A, B-Karanovo VI-Kodjadermen developed during the Atlantic climatic optimum, characterized by hot summers and mild winters. The topography of the subtradition is varied, from the Rhodope and East Balkan mountains in the south, up to the Lower Danube plain and the Dobrouja plateau in the north. Mountains, plateaus, and the Black sea shore (Pernicka et al. 1997: 84-85, 87) provided copper ore. The alluvial clays of the plateaus and the Danube tributary rivers provided flint (Kaczanowska and Kozlowski 1997: 223) and alluvial gold (Koleseri 1780: 75). Deciduous forests, marshes, and steppe covering the region offered shelter for stags, roe deer, boars, and small game (Botzan 1996: 12). Rivers, lakes, and the Black sea coastline provided a large variety of fish (Radu 1997).

Settlements

The Gumelnita A, B-Karanovo VI-Kodjadermen favored river valleys, lakes, or heights for settlements (Lichardus 1988: 91; Morintz 1962). Fortified tell settlements, up to 15,000 sq m, built according to a set plan (Todorova 1978: 48,55), often with a system of canalization (Todorova 1982: 155), were sometimes oval shaped with defensive ditches and wood simple or double palisades and earth walls (Perniceva 1978: 164165). Lacustrine settlements were built on littoral lakes. Nucleated villages had a system of parallel streets (Lichardus 1988: 91) and an empty space or a massive building (Todorova 1978: 48) in the center. In some areas a visible difference in dimensions and probably in functions between villages (Lichardus 1988: 91) confirms an inter settlement hierarchy and the presence of an elite.

A settlement generally contained 10-15 houses, but some had 20 buildings. Nuclear and extended family wattle-and-daub rectangular or megaroid surface houses (Todorova 1978: 51) of one, two, or three rooms with ovens (Lichardus 1988: 91), platform and benches were on average 20 sq m, but spaces of 50 sq m and 170 sq m in nonresidential buildings are also recorded (Perniceva 1978: 166-168).

Economy

The subtradition had a mixed economy with cereal cultivation, which developed a storage strategy (Galbenu 1962: 303; Nania 1967: 19). Lentil also was

Southeastern European Late Chalcolithic 375

cultivated (Hasotti 1997: 105). Domesticated bovines, ovicaprines, suides, fishing, and hunting of large and small game, as well as gathering of shellfish and amphibians, were part of the Gumelnita A, B-Karanovo VI-Kodjadermen diet (Hasotti 1997: 106). Some settlements had a specialized economy (Hasotti 1997: 106). Cattle were used for traction (Gheorghiu 1994: 227), and the horse was domesticated in the Stoicani-Aldeni- Bolgrad variant, before it was domesticated by the steppe populations (Videiko 1994: 27). The principal utensils used were (1) pottery fired in pits and kilns; (2) large chipped stone axes and large flint blades, both locally available; (3) hot forged and cast massive copper axes (Vulpe 1993: 220); and (4) antler plows.

Characteristic pottery includes incised and encrusted tronconical tureens and tronconic globular amphorae, sometimes worked on the potter's wheel and fired in a reductive atmosphere, as well as large storage amphorae worked by hand (Todorova 1978: 72). Copper and gold lip rings or earrings, bracelets, and amulets as well as Spondylus shell or stag-teeth necklaces were the common ornaments of prestige. High-status persons wore costume ornaments and symbolic insignia made of copper or gold. The abundance of gold artifacts allowed scholars to rename the tradition Chrysolithic (Renfrew 1992: 151). Long-distance trade in prestige items with the northeast up to the North Pontic steppes is attested (Best 1984: 151). Craft specialists produced pottery, long flint blades, or metal objects, ornaments, and probably textiles, although there is no evidence of specialized workshops (Lichardus and Lichardus-itten 1985: 374). Metal was exploited in mines with 20 m deep corridors (Chernykh 1975: 146). It seems that the elites from the Black Sea coastline in the southeast of the subtradition, who accumulated large quantities of precious metal and copper, controlled metal production (Todorova 1991: 91) and redistributed prestige goods such as ceramics and goldwork to the northern area of the subtradition. The large amount of energy involved in building the fortified settlements and the burial depth differences between elites and nonelites (Dimov et al. 1984) are indicators of labor control.

Sociopolitical Organization

In the southeast of the subtradition, intraand intersettlement differences and differences between village and "rich" cemeteries, with gender-differentiated deposition of prestige goods (Bailey 1994: 325) of copper and gold in tombs (Ivanov 1978: 25), suggest the existence of a small group of individuals possessing secular and religious authority, based on matrilineal

376Southeastern European Late Chalcolithic

descent and ascribed status, although there is no general agreement (Renfrew 1992: 149). The energy expenditure, the sumptuous funerary rituals, the particular ways of dress with the use of symbolic insignia demonstrate ranking and seem to indicate a chiefdom, even though scholars are still reticent, because of the autonomous character of the settlements (Renfrew 1992: 150). Scholars argue that the subtradition seems to have collapsed owing to increased pressure (Morintz and Roman 1968: 555; Todorova 1978: 11), although there are voices in favor of a cultural change in the northern area of the Danube (Levitzki et al. 1996: 81-82).

Religion and Expressive Culture

A fertility belief common throughout the tradition and related to the female body is suggested by clay, bone, marble, and gold female figurines, ritually broken (Biehl 1996) as well as by clay phalluses. As clay models illustrate, the oven seem to have played a cultic role. Sacrificial rites with children with malformations (Popovici and Rialland 1996: 57) buried inside the settlement (Sorokin 1994: 76), or under the house floor (Popovici and Rialland 1996: 57) suggest a belief linking descent with household and settlement. The cult of the head consisted of clay masks in cenotaphs (Ivanov 1978: 16), as well as secondary burials of skulls (Dumitrescu 1986: 78; Sorokin 1994: 76); funerary offerings of fragments of animals were also performed in the Gumelnita A, B-Karanovo VI-Kodjadermen (Hasotti 1997: 88-89). A complex funerary ritual developed in the elite milieu, consisting of rich deposition of rank markers made of gold, copper, or stone in burials and cenotaphs.

References

Bailey, Douglass W. (1994). "Reading Prehistoric Figurines as Individuals." World Archaeology 25,3: 321-331.

Best, Jan G. P. (1984). "The Varna Necropolis: Its Historic Significance." In Dritter Internationaler Thracologischen Kongress, Wien, 2-6 June 1980. Sofia: SWJAT, 150-153.

Biehl, Peter (1996). "Symbolic Communication Systems: Symbols on Anthropomorphic Figurines of the Neolithic and Chalcolithic from South-Eastern Europe." Journal of European Archaeology 4: 153176.

Botzan, Marcu (1996). Mediu si vietuire in spatiul carpato-dunareano- pontic. Bucharest: Editura Academiei Romane.

Chernykh, Evgeny N. (1975). "Ai-Bunarskii mednii rudnik IV tisyachetie do n.e. na Balkanah." Sovietskaia Arkhheologiia 4:

132-153.

Chernykh, Evgeny N. (1992). Ancient Metallurgy in the USSR. The Early Metal Age. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Dimov, T., Y. Boyadziev and H. Todorova (1984). "Preistoriceskiat necropol crai selo Durankulak, Tolbuhinski okrag." Sbornic Dobrudja 1: 74-88.

Dumitrescu, Vladimir (1986). Stratigrafia asezarii~Tell de pe ostrovelul de la Cascioarele." Cultura si civilizatie la Dunarea de Jos 2: 73-

82.

Galbenu, Doina (1962). "Asezarea neolitica de la Harsova." Studii si cercetari de istorie veche 13,2: 285-304.

250.

Hasotti, Puiu (1997). Epoca Neolitica in Dobrogea. Constanta: Muzeul de Istorie Nationala si Arheologie.

Ivanov, Ivan (1978). Les Fouilles Archeologiques de la necropole chalcolithique a Varna (1972-1975)." Studia Praehistorica 1-2: 13-

26.

Kaczanowska, Malgorzata, and Janus K. Kozlowski (1997). "Neolithic vs. Eneolithic Raw Material Procurement, Technology and Exchange in Eastern Europe." In ANITAQPON completis LXV annis ab amicis collegis discipulis oblatum Dragoslavo Srejovic, ed. A. Jovanovic. Belgrade: University of Belgrade, 223-229.

Koleseri, Samuelis (1780). Auraria Romano-Dacica, una cum Valachiae Cis-Alutanae Subterraneae Descriptione. Pojon (Bratislava): Ioannis

Seivert.

Levitzki, Oleg, Igor Manzura, and Tatiana Demcenko (1996). Necropofa tumulara de fa Sarateni, Bibliotheca Thracologica. Bucharest: Institutul Roman de Tracologie.

Lichardus, Jan, and Marion Lichardus-ltten (1985). La Protohistoire de I'Europe: Le Neolithique et Ie Chalcolithique entre la Mediterranee et la mer Baltique. Paris: Presses Universitaires de France.

Lichardus, Jan (1988). "Der westpontische Raum und die Anfiinge der kupferzeitlichen Zivilisation." In Macht, Herrschaft und Gold: Das Grliberfeld von Varna (Bufgarien) und die Ariflinge einer neuen europliischen Zivilisation. Saarbrucken, 79-129.

Morintz, Sebastian (1962). "Tipuri de asezari si sisteme de fortificatie si de imprejmuire in cultura Gumelnita." Studii si cercetari de istorie veche 12, 3: 273-291.

Morintz, Sebastian, and Petre Roman (1968). "Asupra perioadei de trecere de la eneolitic la epoca bronzului la Dunarea de Jos." Studii si cercetari de istorie veche 19,4: 553-574.

Nania, Ion (1967). "Locuitorii gumelniteni in lumina cercetarilor de la Teiu." Studii si articole de istorie 9.

Perniceva, L. (1978). "Sites et habitations du Cha1colithique en Bulgarie." Studia Praehistorica 1-2: 163-170.

Pernicka, Ernest, F. Begemann, S. Schmitt-Strecker, H. Todorova, and I. Kuleff (1997). "Prehistoric Copper in Bulgaria. Its Composition and Provenance." Eurasia Antiqua 3: 41-179.

Popovici, Dragomir, and Rialland, Yannick (1996). Vivre au bord du Danube if y a 6500 ans. Saint-Jean-de-Ia-Rue1le: Editions Caisse nationale des monuments historiques et des sites.

Radu, Valentin (1997). "Archaeological Researches at BordusaniPopina (Ialomita County): Preliminary Report. Archaeozoology, Pisces." Cercetari arheologice 10: 96-105.

Renfrew, Colin (1992). "Varna and the Emergence of Wealth in Prehistoric Europe." In The Social Life of Things: Commodities in

Cultural Perspective, ed. A. Appadurai. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 141-168.

Sorokin, Victor (1994). "Culturi eneolitice din Moldova." ThracoDacica 15, 1-2: 67-92.

Todorova, Henrietta, (1978). The Eneolithic in Bulgaria in the Fifth Millennium B.C Oxford: British Archaeological Reports, International Series (Supplementary).

Todorova, Henrietta (1982). KupJerzeitliche Siedlungen in Nord6stbulgarien. Munich: C. H. Beck.

Todorova, Henrietta (1991). "Die Kupferzeit Bulgariens." In Die KupJerzeit als historische Epoche, vol. 2, ed. 1. Lichardus. Bonn: Rudolf Habelt, 89-93.

Videiko, Mihailo Y. (1994). "Tripolye-'Pastoral' Contacts: Facts and Character of the Interactions: 4800-3200 Be, Nomadism and Pastoralism in the Circle of Baltic-Pontic Early Agrarian Cultures:

5000-1650 Be." Baltic-Pontic Studies 2: 5-28.

Vulpe, Alexandru (1993). "Inceputurile metalurgiei aramei in spatiul carpato-dunarean." Studii si cercetari de istorie veche 24, 2: 217-236.

Petresti, A, AB, B

TIME PERIOD: 570O-c. 5100 B.P. (Paul 1992: 127).

LOCATION: The western and southwestern Transylvanian plateau in central Romania. The subtradition extends during its middle and final phases westward up to the Mures river and southwestward up to the Olt river (Drasovean 1994; Paul 1992: 20). An acculturation with the Precucuteni subtradition created the Ariusd regional aspect of Cucuteni-Tripolye (Ursulescu 1998: 133).

DIAGNOSTIC MATERIAL ATTRIBUTES: Globular-tronconic

amphorae, tronconical tureens, bowls with flaring tronconical stands with bichrome and polychrome patterns of lozenges, chess-like meanders and spirals, as well as female clay figurines with incised decoration are primary diagnostics of the Petresti subtradition. Medium-size flint blades, stone axes, and shaft-hole stone axes, as well as surface buildings with wooden and clay platforms and houses on wooden beams are also characteristic of this regional subtradition. There are no necropoles found in the subtradition.

CULTURAL SUMMARY

Environment

The climate inhabited by Petresti communities was characterized by hot summers and mild winters. The topography of the region is simple, represented by the Transylvanian plateau, crossed by river valleys that formed the primary location for settlements, and protected on two sides by the Carpathian mountains. The mountains produced copper ore and the plateau various lithics and pigments. The region was covered by dense deciduous forests of oak, maple, lime, elm, beech with

Southeastern European Late Chalcolithic 377

an abundant wildlife of big and small game (Paul 1992: 133).

Settlements

Petresti communities seem to have evolved during three phases of the tradition (A, AB, and B) from small settlements positioned on low terraces to wide, flat, large settlements that multiplied rapidly (Paul 1992: 18). There is not enough information to support the existence of any protective system or a hierarchically organized system of large settlements. Generally close positioning indicates a genetic relationship (Paul 1992: 18). In Phases AB and B, the surface wattle-and-daub houses (c. six on 10 sq m) with wooden structure and wooden-and-clay platforms became predominant, compared with semisubterranean houses (Paul 1992: 23). Also houses built on a wooden beam structure with wooden walls were common in the Petresti communities (Paul 1992: 36). The lack of necropoles in this subtradition does not permit any demographical evaluation; one can estimate from the few isolated burials that average age at death for female adults seems to have been about 40 years. The sudden growth of the number of households in Phases AB and B is an index of the Petresti population increase at the end of the subtradition.

Economy

Petresti populations had a mixed economy, consisting of cereal cultivation and a developed cattle breeding. Hunting was a minor food source (Paul 1992: 133). The primary utensils used by Petresti communities were stone tools and ceramic vases. Characteristic stone utensils are medium-size flint blades, small obsidian blades, blades of siliceous rocks, and simple and shafted axes. Projectile points were not discovered in this subtradition (Paul 1992: 39). The Petresti specific pottery is of two kinds: (1) undecorated globular amphorae with cylindrical necks, cup stands, tronconical tureens for common use; and (2) bichrome and polychrome painted thin-walled prestige bowls with flaring tronconical stands and tronconical tureens baked in kilns (Paul 1992: 67). Craft specialists may have produced the polished stone tools and the painted prestige ceramics. Copper massive cruciform axes were not numerous. Copper massive tools as well as scarce small copper ornaments (Paul 1992: 108, 110) seem to be the result of trade (Comsa 1978: 18) with the southern area of the Chalcolithic tradition, as suggested by Petresti ceramic exports in the Gumelnita-Karanovo

378Southeastern European Late Chalcolithic

VI-Kodjadermen subtradition (Berciu 1966: 123). Ornaments of copper or other materials are very rare.

Sociopolitical Organization

Painted bichrome and polychrome ceramics involving labor expenditure and craft specialization and imported prestige copper ornaments and tools could characterize a ranked society with a control of rank items. There are no indicators of conflicts between settlements as in other regions of the Chalcolithic tradition.

Religion and Expressive Culture

The clay female figurines and the crouched human bodies symbolizing "sleep," discovered in settlements or under house floors (Paul 1992: 115), suggest a belief in fertility associated with the female body and in an afterlife, together with a belief linking descent to the household. A ritual of funerary offerings in animal food is also recorded (Paul 1992: 116). Ritual pits containing storage vases, fragments of hearths, ceramic skeuomorphs of axes, and calcinated animal bones, as well as cultic complexes of incised portable triangular "altars" made of wood and clay, are evidence of a standardized domestic ritual activity (Paul 1992: 107).

DESCRIPTIVE SUMMARY

Goljamo Delcevo is positioned in a valley near a marine lake, at the brim of a low plateau (Todorova 1982).

Physical Features

The nucleated tell site, fortified with an earth wall, consists of several overlapped layers of habitation, a continuous Gumelnita A, B--Karanovo VI-Kodjader- men horizon starting from the fifth level. The ovalshaped settlement of the fifth layer has a set plan of 11 wattle-and-daub houses, one with a wood and clay platform, and another with large dimensions. The houses are positioned on three rows separated by 1.5- 2 m-wide corridors. The site continues its configuration on the next levels with minor changes, the earth wall fortification being reinforced with stone and wood. The other horizons indicate a diminishing of the surface and a decline in the defensive strategy of the site. It seems that Goljamo Delcevo ended in a fire, which consumed the last level of the settlement (Todorova 1982).

References

Berciu, Dumitru (1966). Zorile istoriei in Carpati si fa Dunare.

Bucharest: Editura Stiintifica.

Comsa, Eugen (1978). "Contributions a I'etude de la continuite des cultures neo-eneolithiques du sud-est de la Roumanie et de leurs rapports avec les cultures avoisinantes vers Ie nord." Thracia Praehistorica, Suppfementum Pufpudeva 3: 10-18.

Drasovean, Florin (1994). "The Petresti Culture in Banat." Anafele Banatului 3: 139-170.

Paul, Iuliu (1992). Cultura Petresti. Bucharest: Museion.

Ursulescu, Nicolae (1998). Inceputurile istoriei pe teritoriul Romaniei.

Iasi: Demiurg.

SITES

Cultural Aspects

Goljamo Delcevo seems to be one of the most representative sites illustrating the development and disintegration of Gumelnita A, B-Karanovo VI-Kodja- dermen (Varna) subtradition. At almost any level, the site has features suggesting a social ranking: intrasettlement differences, craft workshops, fine ceramics, copper and gold objects (Pernika et al. 1997: 65). The Goljamo Delcevo necropolis also exhibits discrete ranking features and gender differentiation, containing malachite, copper, and gold (Pernicka et al. 1997: 65; Todorova 1982). The last three levels of Goljamo Delcevo attest an extension in copper ownership, which could justify the final conflict.

Goljamo Delcevo

TIME PERIOD: c. from 5700 B.P.

LOCATION: Near the Luda Kamcija and Goljamo Kamcija rivers confluence, in eastern Bulgaria, 70 km distant from the Black sea coast.

References

Pernicka, Ernest, F. Begemann, S. Schmitt-Strecker, H. Todorova, and I. Kuleff (1997). "Prehistoric Copper in Bulgaria: Its Composition and Provenance." Eurasia Antiqlla 3: 41-179.

Todorova, Henrietta (1982). KlipJerzeitliche Siedlllngen in Nordostblilgarien. Munich: C. H. Beck.

Habasesti

TIME PERIOD: 5350 B.P. +/- 80 (Dumitrescu 1967: 41).

LOCATION: In the Moldavian plateau, near the Siret river (Dumitrescu 1967: 5).

DESCRIPTIVE SUMMARY

Local Environment

Habasesti has a surface of 15,000 sq m and is located on a long hill, with three steep sides. The site was surrounded by deciduous forests until recently (Dumitrescu 1967: 9).

Physical Features

Habasesti is secluded on one side by two ditches (Dumitrescu et al. 1954: 203-223; Marinescu-Bilcu 1997: 167), with wood and reed palisades serving as defensive system or as animal fold (Dumitrescu 1967: 10, 25). The site has a preconceived plan, with houses disposed on two semicircular rows, each having a larger building positioned in the center (Dumitrescu 1967: fig. IV; Dumitrescu et al. 1954: 18-202; Marinescu-Bilcu 1997: 170). Houses made of wattle and daub and wood- and-clay platforms (7 by 4 m), had two or more rooms containing ovens (Dumitrescu 1967: 16). The walls were supported by horizontal wooden structures or by wooden poles. Exterior ovens suggest the use of summer kitchens (Dumitrescu 1967: 17). Besides the residential houses, there were also subordinate small buildings. The site's inhabitants were agriculturalists and animal breeders, but hunting and gathering seem to have been also part of their economy (Dumitrescu 1967: 43).

Cultural Aspects

Kitchen ceramics, large storage amphorae (Dumitrescu 1967: 27), as well as prestige polychrome and incised ceramics, two large buildings, and a hoard of copper and stag-teeth beads suggest the presence of a ranked community. The fire that destroyed the site could be an index of conflict, probably determined by economic reasons. It seems that Habasesti had a certain religious role, as the abundant female clay figurines (Monah 1997: 68), phalloi, and zoomorphic figurines suggest (Dumitrescu 1967: 37).

Southeastern European Late Chalcolithic 379

References

Dumitrescu, Vladimir, H. Dumitrescu, M. Petrescu-Dimbovita, and N. Gostar (1954). Habasesti: Monografie arheologica. Bucharest: Academiei.

Dumitrescu, Vladimir (1967). Habasesti: Satul neolitic de pe Holm.

Bucharest: Meridiane.

Marinescu-Bilcu, Silvia (1997). "Considerations on the Inner Organization of Some Settlements Belonging to Cultures of PrecucuteniCucuteni Complexes." Cultura si civilizatie la Dunarea de Jos 15:

165-201.

Monah, Dan, ed. (1997). Plastica antropomorfa a culturii CucuteniTripolye: Bibliotheca Memoria Antiquitatis. Piatra Neamt: Complexul Muzeal Judetean Neamt.

Veseli Kut

TIME PERIOD: c. 5150--5050 B.P. (Tsvek 1996: 105).

LOCATION: Ukraine, Cercasov region, in the Dnieper area (Sorokin 1993: 81).

DESCRIPTIVE SUMMARY

Local Environment

The site is located on a promontory, on the first terrace above the flooded plain of the Hirny Tikich river (Tsvek 1996: 103).

Physical Features

Veseli Kut is one of the first considerably large settlements of the eastern area of Cucuteni-Tripolye, a super residential center of approximately 150 ha (Tsvek 1996: 105). Nucleated houses are positioned in concentric circles around a central open space, disposed to form a network of streets (Tsvek 1996: 103). The majority of one-story houses are rectangular, 40-- 60 sq m (Tsvek 1996: 103), with two rooms and builtin benches and ovens, but houses of 100 sq m and E- and T-shaped buildings are also recorded (Tsvek 1996: 103). Complex-shaped houses seem to attest to new functions, such as workshops for flint, bone, and leather processing or storage (Tsvek 1996: 103). The large number of specialized buildings confirms a high economic level (Tsvek 1996: 103). A complex of two

380Southeastern European Late Chalcolithic

ceramic workshops is documented at the periphery of the site (Tsvek 1996: 103). Evidence for intensive agriculture is recorded (Paskevic 1989).

Cultural Aspects

Veseli Kut was founded by settlers from the Onoprievka site of the regional Bug-Dniester group of Cucuteni-Tripolye and belongs to the eponymous group, characterized by an accelerated process of cultural diffusion and a population boom (Tsvek 1996: 101). The intrasettlement hierarchies with elite residential buildings, together with the craft specialization evidence and the differences between it and the parent site, suggest a complex and ranked community with extended families. Veseli Kut has features of a specialized economic center. It seems that the site func-

tioned as an attractor for other ethnic groups (Tsvek 1996: 105).

References

Paskevic, Y. A. (1989). "Paleobotaniceskie issledovanja tripolskih materialov mezdurecja Dnepra i Juznogo Buga." Pervobytnaja archeologia (Kiev): 132-148.

Sorokin, Victor (1993). "Modalitatile de organizare a asezarilor complexului cultural Cucuteni-Tripolye." Arheologia Moldovei 16:

69-86.

Tsvek, Elena (1996). "Structure of the Eastern-Tripolye Culture." In

Bibliotheca Memoriae Antiqvitatis, ed. G. Dumitroaia and D. Monah. Piatra Neamt: Complexul Muzeal Judetean Neamt, 89-114.

DRAGOS GHEORGHIU

Bucharest

Romania