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Preface

A companion Website to the book is available at www.pearsonhighered.com/sebe- sta. This site contains mini-manuals (approximately 100-page tutorials) on a handful of languages. These proceed on the assumption that the student knows how to program in some other language, giving the student enough information to complete the chapter materials in each language. Currently the site includes manuals for C++, C, Java, and Smalltalk.

Solutions to many of the problem sets are available to qualified instructors in our Instructor Resource Center at www.pearsonhighered.com/irc. Please contact your school’s Pearson Education representative or visit www.pearsonhighered.com/irc to register.

Language Processor Availability

Processors for and information about some of the programming languages discussed in this book can be found at the following Websites:

C, C++, Fortran, and Ada	gcc.gnu.org
C# and F#	microsoft.com
Java	java.sun.com
Haskell	haskell.org
Lua	www.lua.org
Scheme	www.plt-scheme.org/software/drscheme
Perl	www.perl.com
Python	www.python.org
Ruby	www.ruby-lang.org

JavaScript is included in virtually all browsers; PHP is included in virtually all Web servers.

All this information is also included on the companion Website.

Acknowledgments

The suggestions from outstanding reviewers contributed greatly to this book’s present form. In alphabetical order, they are:

Matthew Michael Burke
I-ping Chu	DePaul University
Teresa Cole	Boise State University
Pamela Cutter	Kalamazoo College
Amer Diwan	University of Colorado
Stephen Edwards	Virginia Tech
David E. Goldschmidt
Nigel Gwee	Southern University–Baton Rouge

xPreface

Timothy Henry	University of Rhode Island
Paul M. Jackowitz	University of Scranton
Duane J. Jarc	University of Maryland, University College
K. N. King	Georgia State University
Donald Kraft	Louisiana State University
Simon H. Lin	California State University–Northridge
Mark Llewellyn	University of Central Florida
Bruce R. Maxim	University of Michigan–Dearborn
Robert McCloskey	University of Scranton
Curtis Meadow	University of Maine
Gloria Melara	California State University–Northridge
Frank J. Mitropoulos	Nova Southeastern University
Euripides Montagne	University of Central Florida
Serita Nelesen	Calvin College
Bob Neufeld	Wichita State University
Charles Nicholas	University of Maryland-Baltimore County
Tim R. Norton	University of Colorado-Colorado Springs
Richard M. Osborne	University of Colorado-Denver
Saverio Perugini	University of Dayton
Walter Pharr	College of Charleston
Michael Prentice	SUNY Buffalo
Amar Raheja	California State Polytechnic University–Pomona
Hossein Saiedian	University of Kansas
Stuart C. Shapiro	SUNY Buffalo
Neelam Soundarajan	Ohio State University
Ryan Stansifer	Florida Institute of Technology
Nancy Tinkham	Rowan University
Paul Tymann	Rochester Institute of Technology
Cristian Videira Lopes	University of California–Irvine
Sumanth Yenduri	University of Southern Mississippi
Salih Yurttas	Texas A&M University

Numerous other people provided input for the previous editions of Concepts of Programming Languages at various stages of its development. All of their comments were useful and greatly appreciated. In alphabetical order, they are: Vicki Allan, Henry Bauer, Carter Bays, Manuel E. Bermudez, Peter Brouwer, Margaret Burnett, Paosheng Chang, Liang Cheng, John Crenshaw, Charles Dana, Barbara Ann Griem, Mary Lou Haag, John V. Harrison, Eileen Head, Ralph C. Hilzer, Eric Joanis, Leon Jololian, Hikyoo Koh, Jiang B. Liu, Meiliu Lu, Jon Mauney, Robert McCoard, Dennis L. Mumaugh, Michael G. Murphy, Andrew Oldroyd, Young Park, Rebecca Parsons, Steve J. Phelps, Jeffery Popyack, Raghvinder Sangwan, Steven Rapkin, Hamilton Richard, Tom Sager, Joseph Schell, Sibylle Schupp, Mary Louise Soffa, Neelam Soundarajan, Ryan Stansifer, Steve Stevenson, Virginia Teller, Yang Wang, John M. Weiss, Franck Xia, and Salih Yurnas.

Preface

Matt Goldstein, editor; Chelsea Kharakozova, editorial assistant; and, Marilyn Lloyd, senior production manager of Addison-Wesley, and Gillian Hall of The Aardvark Group Publishing Services, all deserve my gratitude for their efforts to produce the tenth edition both quickly and carefully.

About the Author

Robert Sebesta is an Associate Professor Emeritus in the Computer Science Department at the University of Colorado–Colorado Springs. Professor Sebesta received a BS in applied mathematics from the University of Colorado in Boulder and MS and PhD degrees in computer science from Pennsylvania State University. He has taught computer science for more than 38 years. His professional interests are the design and evaluation of programming languages.

Chapter 1 Preliminaries		1
1.1	Reasons for Studying Concepts of Programming Languages	............... 2
1.2	Programming Domains.....................................................................	5
1.3	Language Evaluation Criteria ...........................................................	7
1.4	Influences on Language Design .......................................................	18
1.5	Language Categories ......................................................................	21
1.6	Language Design Trade-Offs ...........................................................	23
1.7	Implementation Methods................................................................	23
1.8	Programming Environments ...........................................................	31
Summary • Review Questions • Problem Set..............................................		31
Chapter 2 Evolution of the Major Programming Languages		35
2.1	Zuse’s Plankalkül ..........................................................................	38
2.2	Pseudocodes ..................................................................................	39
2.3	The IBM 704 and Fortran..............................................................	42
2.4	Functional Programming: LISP......................................................	47
2.5	The First Step Toward Sophistication: ALGOL 60 ...........................	52
2.6	Computerizing Business Records: COBOL........................................	58
2.7	The Beginnings of Timesharing: BASIC ...........................................	63
Interview: ALAN COOPER—User Design and Language Design.................		66
2.8	Everything for Everybody: PL/I ......................................................	68
2.9	Two Early Dynamic Languages: APL and SNOBOL .........................	71
2.10	The Beginnings of Data Abstraction: SIMULA 67 ...........................	72
2.11	Orthogonal Design: ALGOL 68 .......................................................	73
2.12	Some Early Descendants of the ALGOLs .........................................	75

xii

	Contents	xiii
2.13	Programming Based on Logic: Prolog.............................................	79
2.14	History’s Largest Design Effort: Ada ..............................................	81
2.15	Object-Oriented Programming: Smalltalk ........................................	85
2.16	Combining Imperative and Object-Oriented Features: C++................	88
2.17	An Imperative-Based Object-Oriented Language: Java .....................	91
2.18	Scripting Languages.......................................................................	95
2.19	The Flagship .NET Language: C# .................................................	101
2.20	Markup/Programming Hybrid Languages ......................................	104
Summary • Bibliographic Notes • Review Questions • Problem Set •
Programming Exercises ...........................................................................		106
Chapter 3 Describing Syntax and Semantics		113
3.1	Introduction.................................................................................	114
3.2	The General Problem of Describing Syntax....................................	115
3.3	Formal Methods of Describing Syntax...........................................	117
3.4	Attribute Grammars.....................................................................	132
	History Note .....................................................................................	133
3.5	Describing the Meanings of Programs: Dynamic Semantics ............	139
	History Note .....................................................................................	154
Summary • Bibliographic Notes • Review Questions • Problem Set...........		161
Chapter 4 Lexical and Syntax Analysis		167
4.1	Introduction.................................................................................	168
4.2	Lexical Analysis ...........................................................................	169
4.3	The Parsing Problem....................................................................	177
4.4	Recursive-Descent Parsing............................................................	181
4.5	Bottom-Up Parsing ......................................................................	190
Summary • Review Questions • Problem Set • Programming Exercises.....		197
Chapter 5 Names, Bindings, and Scopes		203
5.1	Introduction.................................................................................	204
5.2	Names .........................................................................................	205
	History Note .....................................................................................	205

xiv	Contents
	5.3	Variables .....................................................................................	207
	5.4	The Concept of Binding ................................................................	209
	5.5	Scope ..........................................................................................	218
	5.6	Scope and Lifetime ......................................................................	229
	5.7	Referencing Environments ............................................................	230
	5.8	Named Constants.........................................................................	232
	Summary • Review Questions • Problem Set • Programming Exercises.....		234
	Chapter 6 Data Types		243
	6.1	Introduction.................................................................................	244
	6.2	Primitive Data Types ....................................................................	246
	6.3	Character String Types .................................................................	250
		History Note .....................................................................................	251
	6.4	User-Defined Ordinal Types ...........................................................	255
	6.5	Array Types..................................................................................	259
		History Note .....................................................................................	260
		History Note .....................................................................................	261
	6.6	Associative Arrays........................................................................	272
		Interview: ROBERTO IERUSALIMSCHY—Lua ...........................	274
	6.7	Record Types................................................................................	276
	6.8	Tuple Types ..................................................................................	280
	6.9	List Types ....................................................................................	281
	6.10	Union Types .................................................................................	284
	6.11	Pointer and Reference Types .........................................................	289
		History Note .....................................................................................	293
	6.12	Type Checking..............................................................................	302
	6.13	Strong Typing...............................................................................	303
	6.14	Type Equivalence..........................................................................	304
	6.15	Theory and Data Types .................................................................	308
	Summary • Bibliographic Notes • Review Questions • Problem Set •
	Programming Exercises ...........................................................................		310

	Contents	xv
Chapter 7 Expressions and Assignment Statements		317
7.1	Introduction.................................................................................	318
7.2	Arithmetic Expressions ................................................................	318
7.3	Overloaded Operators ...................................................................	328
7.4	Type Conversions..........................................................................	329
	History Note .....................................................................................	332
7.5	Relational and Boolean Expressions..............................................	332
	History Note .....................................................................................	333
7.6	Short-Circuit Evaluation ..............................................................	335
7.7	Assignment Statements ................................................................	336
	History Note .....................................................................................	340
7.8	Mixed-Mode Assignment ..............................................................	341
Summary • Review Questions • Problem Set • Programming Exercises.....		341
Chapter 8 Statement-Level Control Structures		347
8.1	Introduction.................................................................................	348
8.2	Selection Statements....................................................................	350
8.3	Iterative Statements.....................................................................	362
8.4	Unconditional Branching ..............................................................	375
	History Note .....................................................................................	376
8.5	Guarded Commands .....................................................................	376
8.6	Conclusions..................................................................................	379
Summary • Review Questions • Problem Set • Programming Exercises.....		380
Chapter 9 Subprograms		387
9.1	Introduction.................................................................................	388
9.2	Fundamentals of Subprograms .....................................................	388
9.3	Design Issues for Subprograms .....................................................	396
9.4	Local Referencing Environments...................................................	397
9.5	Parameter-Passing Methods .........................................................	399
	History Note .....................................................................................	407
	History Note .....................................................................................	407

xvi	Contents
	9.6	Parameters That Are Subprograms ...............................................	417
	9.7	Calling Subprograms Indirectly.....................................................	419
		History Note .....................................................................................	419
	9.8	Overloaded Subprograms..............................................................	421
	9.9	Generic Subprograms ...................................................................	422
	9.10	Design Issues for Functions ..........................................................	428
	9.11	User-Defined Overloaded Operators ...............................................	430
	9.12	Closures ......................................................................................	430
	9.13	Coroutines ...................................................................................	432
	Summary • Review Questions • Problem Set • Programming Exercises.....		435
	Chapter 10 Implementing Subprograms		441
	10.1	The General Semantics of Calls and Returns..................................	442
	10.2	Implementing “Simple” Subprograms ...........................................	443
	10.3	Implementing Subprograms with Stack-Dynamic Local Variables...	445
	10.4	Nested Subprograms ....................................................................	454
	10.5	Blocks .........................................................................................	460
	10.6	Implementing Dynamic Scoping....................................................	462
	Summary • Review Questions • Problem Set • Programming Exercises.....		466
	Chapter 11 Abstract Data Types and Encapsulation Constructs		473
	11.1	The Concept of Abstraction ..........................................................	474
	11.2	Introduction to Data Abstraction ..................................................	475
	11.3	Design Issues for Abstract Data Types ...........................................	478
	11.4	Language Examples .....................................................................	479
	Interview: BJARNE STROUSTRUP—C++: Its Birth,
	Its Ubiquitousness, and Common Criticisms .............................................		480
	11.5	Parameterized Abstract Data Types...............................................	503
	11.6	Encapsulation Constructs .............................................................	509
	11.7	Naming Encapsulations ................................................................	513
	Summary • Review Questions • Problem Set • Programming Exercises.....		517

	Contents	xvii
Chapter 12 Support for Object-Oriented Programming		523
12.1	Introduction.................................................................................	524
12.2	Object-Oriented Programming ......................................................	525
12.3	Design Issues for Object-Oriented Languages .................................	529
12.4	Support for Object-Oriented Programming in Smalltalk .................	534
Interview: BJARNE STROUSTRUP—On Paradigms and Better
Programming .........................................................................................		536
12.5	Support for Object-Oriented Programming in C++ .........................	538
12.6	Support for Object-Oriented Programming in Objective-C ..............	549
12.7	Support for Object-Oriented Programming in Java.........................	552
12.8	Support for Object-Oriented Programming in C# ...........................	556
12.9	Support for Object-Oriented Programming in Ada 95 ....................	558
12.10	Support for Object-Oriented Programming in Ruby........................	563
12.11	Implementation of Object-Oriented Constructs...............................	566
Summary • Review Questions • Problem Set • Programming Exercises ....		569
Chapter 13 Concurrency		575
13.1	Introduction.................................................................................	576
13.2	Introduction to Subprogram-Level Concurrency.............................	581
13.3	Semaphores .................................................................................	586
13.4	Monitors......................................................................................	591
13.5	Message Passing ..........................................................................	593
13.6	Ada Support for Concurrency .......................................................	594
13.7	Java Threads................................................................................	603
13.8	C# Threads ..................................................................................	613
13.9	Concurrency in Functional Languages ...........................................	618
13.10	Statement-Level Concurrency .......................................................	621
Summary • Bibliographic Notes • Review Questions • Problem Set •
Programming Exercises ...........................................................................		623

xviii Contents

Chapter 14 Exception Handling and Event Handling		629
14.1	Introduction to Exception Handling ..............................................	630
	History Note .....................................................................................	634
14.2	Exception Handling in Ada ...........................................................	636
14.3	Exception Handling in C++...........................................................	643
14.4	Exception Handling in Java ..........................................................	647
14.5	Introduction to Event Handling.....................................................	655
14.6	Event Handling with Java .............................................................	656
14.7	Event Handling in C# ...................................................................	661
Summary • Bibliographic Notes • Review Questions • Problem Set •
Programming Exercises ...........................................................................		664

Chapter 15 Functional Programming Languages		671
15.1	Introduction.................................................................................	672
15.2	Mathematical Functions...............................................................	673
15.3	Fundamentals of Functional Programming Languages ...................	676
15.4	The First Functional Programming Language: LISP .....................	677
15.5	An Introduction to Scheme...........................................................	681
15.6	Common LISP.............................................................................	699
15.7	ML..............................................................................................	701
15.8	Haskell ........................................................................................	707
15.9	F#...............................................................................................	712
15.10	Support for Functional Programming in Primarily
	Imperative Languages ..................................................................	715
15.11	A Comparison of Functional and Imperative Languages.................	717
Summary • Bibliographic Notes • Review Questions • Problem Set •
Programming Exercises ...........................................................................		720

Chapter 16 Logic Programming Languages		727
16.1	Introduction.................................................................................	728
16.2	A Brief Introduction to Predicate Calculus....................................	728
16.3	Predicate Calculus and Proving Theorems .....................................	732

	Contents	xix
16.4	An Overview of Logic Programming ..............................................	734
16.5	The Origins of Prolog ...................................................................	736
16.6	The Basic Elements of Prolog.......................................................	736
16.7	Deficiencies of Prolog ..................................................................	751
16.8	Applications of Logic Programming ..............................................	757
Summary • Bibliographic Notes • Review Questions • Problem Set •
Programming Exercises ...........................................................................		758
Bibliography ................................................................................		763
Index	...........................................................................................	773

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Preliminaries

1.1Reasons for Studying Concepts of Programming Languages

1.2Programming Domains

1.3Language Evaluation Criteria

1.4Influences on Language Design

1.5Language Categories

1.6Language Design Trade-Offs

1.7Implementation Methods

1.8Programming Environments

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