семинары / семинар 4 / Wet_Steam_Turbines_for_Nuclear_Power_Plants_By_Alexander_S_Leyzerovich

List of Illustrations

xxv

Figure 4–74 Functional chart of a device for temperature monitoring

of LP rotors for wet-steam turbines

366

Figure 4–75 Cold start-up of Turboatom’s K-500-65/3000 turbine at

the Chernobyl nuclear power plant with current admissible

load boundaries based on the HP rotor’s monitored

thermal stress state as presented to the operator . . . . . .

. . . . . .

367

Figure 4–76 Control desk of the start-up automaton for the K-220-44

turbine at the Kola nuclear power plant

368

Figure 4–77 Experimental automated running-up of the turbine for

various start-ups . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . .

370

Figure 4–78 Experimental automated loading of the turbine at hot (a)

and warm (b) start-ups . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . .

371

Figure 4–79 Principle block chart of automated device for loading

a wet-steam turbine during start-ups

373

Figure 4–80

Automated start-up of a K-220-44 turbine at the Kola

power plant . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . .

374

Figure 5–1

Replacement of an LP rotor with shrunk-on disks (a) with

a welded rotor (b) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . .

402

Figure 5–2 Change in the static shaft-line curvature due to the

replacement of LP disk-type rotors (a) with welded ones (b)

403

Figure 5–3 Change of a cold start-up diagram for ALSTOM’s 900-MW

wet-steam turbine after replacement of disk-type LP disk-type

rotors (a) with welded rotors (b)

404

Figure 5–4 Refurbishment of the LP cylinder of an ABB wet-steam

turbine for efficiency improvement. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . .

406

Figure 5-5

Longitudinal and cross sections of ABB’s LP cylinder with a

scroll-type steam inlet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . .

407

Figure 5-6

LP cylinder of a low-speed turbine after (a) and before (b)

retrofitting by Westinghouse

409

Figure 5-7

Ruggedized LP cylinder of Westinghouse for retrofitting

nuclear steam turbines

410

Figure 5-8

Improvements of the LP cylinder design for Siemens’

low-speed wet-steam turbines (from a ten-disk rotor

to a six-disk rotor) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . .

412

Figure 5-9

Steam stream lines in the outflow to the condenser for

old (a) and improved (b) Siemens turbine designs . . . . . .

. . . . . .

414

Figure 5-10

Comparison of previous (a) and advanced (b)

HP cylinders for retrofitted Siemens wet-steam

turbines; steam inlet segment (c) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

416

Figure 5-11

Refurbished HP (a) and LP (b) cylinders of the

1,000-MW-class wet-steam turbine at Vandellos Unit 2

421

Figure 5-12

Original design of disk-type LP rotors of SONGS’

1,127-MW turbines (a) and their retrofitted

optiflow configuration design (b)

423

List of Tables

Table 1–1

Nuclear electricity production in

various countries (1999)

6

Table 1–2

Top 50 nuclear power plant units ranked by

power production (2001) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. 7

Table 1–3

Top 20 U.S. nuclear power plants ranked by

efficiency (1999–2001) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

12

Table 1–4

Top 20 U.S. nuclear power plants ranked by

lowest non-fuel O&M costs (1999–2001)

13

Table 1–5

Top 20 U.S. nuclear power plants ranked by

power generation (2001) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

14

Table 1–6

Nuclear power generation by countries (2001)

15

Table 1–7

Operating performances for German nuclear

power units (2002) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

17

Table 3–1

Distribution of wet-steam turbines by gross

individual capacity (as of 2001) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

103

Table 3–2

Main characteristics of Siemens’ large

wet-steam turbines

117

Table 3–3

Main characteristics of some LSBs for high-speed

steam turbines of various manufacturers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

163

Table 3–4

Main characteristics of some LSBs for low-speed

steam turbines of various manufacturers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

166

Table 4–1

Top 50 nuclear power plant units worldwide with the

highest annual capacity factor in 2001

235

Table 4–2

Comparative efficiency data for some wet-steam turbines

of different manufacturers (1986) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

259

Table 4–3

Heat-rate performances of Turboatom’s turbine K-1000-60/

1500-2 according to the acceptance tests at Zaporozhe

nuclear power plant . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

269

Table 4–4

The increase in output for wet-steam turbines of Siemens

due to their refurbishment according to their comparative

heat-rate performance tests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

271

Table 4–5

Relevance of steam path damage mechanisms for

various steam-turbine types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

278

Table 5–1

Constituents of performance improvement due to retrofitting

LP cylinders for 1127-MW turbines of SONGS

425

ABB

Asea Brown Boveri, Germany/Switzerland/Sweden (currently merged with

ALSTOM)

AEG

Allgemeine Electricitäts-Gesellschaft, Germany (merged with Siemens)

AEP

American Electric Power, United States

ANSI

American National Standards Institute, United States

ASME

American Society of Mechanical Engineers, United States

BBC

Brown Boveri Company (later ABB), Germany/Switzerland

(currently merged with ALSTOM)

BHEL

Bharat Heavy Electricals Ltd., India

CEM

Compagnie Electro-Mecanique, France (became part of GEC Alsthom;

currently merged with ALSTOM)

EdF

Electricité de France, France

EIA

Energy Information Administration, United States (part of the U.S.

Department of Energy)

EPRI

Electric Power Research Institute, United States

GE

General Electric, United States

GEC

The General Electric Company, United Kingdom (became part of GEC

Alsthom; currently merged with ALSTOM)

IAEA

International Atomic Energy Agency

INPO

Institute of Nuclear Power Operations, United States

KhTGZ

Kharkov Turbine Works, Soviet Union (currently Turboatom, Ukraine)

KWU

Kraftwerke Union AG, Germany (currently Siemens Power Generation)

LMZ

Leningrad Metallic Works, Russia

MAN

Maschinenfabrik Augsburg-Nürnberg, Germany (became part of GEC

Alsthom; currently merged with ALSTOM)

MEI

Moscow Power Engineering Institute, Russia

MHI

Mitsubishi Heavy Industries, Japan

NRC

Nuclear Regulatory Commission, United States

SONGS

San Onofre Nuclear Generating Station, United States

SWPC

Siemens Westinghouse Power Corporation, United States (U.S. subsidiary

of Siemens Power Generation)

VNIIAM

All-Russian (formerly All-Union) Research, Planning and Design Institute

for Nuclear Power Engineering, Russia

VTI

All-Russian (formerly All-Union) Thermal Engineering Research Institute,

Russia

Acronyms

ABWR

advanced boiling water reactor

AGR

advanced gas-cooled reactor

AW

abrasive wear

BWR

boiling water reactor

C&I

control and instrumentation

CANDU

Canada deuterium uranium (pressurized heavy water reactor)

CC

corrosion cracking

CC

cross-compound (double-shaft turbine)

CE

cavitation erosion

CFD

computational fluid dynamics

List of Abbreviations and Symbols 437

COM

condition-oriented maintenance

CRT

cathode ray tube

DACS

data acquisition and control system

DIE

drop impact erosion (see WDE)

ECW

erosion-corrosion wear

EOM

efficiency-oriented maintenance

EPR

European Pressurized Water Reactor (pressurized water reactor)

FBR

fast breeder reactor (see LMFBR)

FD

flat display

FRF

fire-resistant fluid

GCR

gas-cooled reactor

HAW

hydroabrasive wear

HP

high-pressure

HP–IP

high-pressure and intermediate-pressure (integrated turbine cylinder)

HSR

high-speed reclosing (of a generator)

HTGR

high-temperature gas-cooled reactor

HVS

high-velocity separator (centrifugal separator)

HWR

heavy-water reactor (see PHWR)

IP

intermediate-pressure

LMFBR

liquid metal fast breeder reactor

LP

low-pressure

LSB

last stage blade

LWGR

light-water graphite reactor (see PTGR, RBMK)

LWR

light-water reactor

MCR

maximum continuous rating

MOPS

moisture preseparator

MGV

main gate valve

MS

moisture separator

MSR

moisture separator and reheater

MSS

moisture separation stage

NWH

network water heater

O&M

operation and maintenance

ODA

octadecylamine (C18 H 37 NH 2), amines-based surface-acting fluid

OEM

original equipment manufacturer

OMTI

oil of Thermal Engineering Institute (Russian acronym)

PBMR

pebble bed modular reactor

PC

personal computer

PdM

predictive maintenance

PHWR

pressurized heavy-water reactor

PM

preventive maintenance

PTGR

pressure-tube graphite reactor (see LWGR, RBMK)

PWR

pressurized water reactor

RBMK

channel reactor of large capacity (Russian acronym; see LWGR)

RCM

reliability-centered maintenance

RRE

relative rotor expansion

SCC

stress corrosion cracking

SCRUPS

special crossunder pipe separator

SCV

stop/control valve

SG

steam generator

SI

International System of Units

TC

tandem-compound (single-shaft turbine)

TTD

terminal temperature difference

USC

ultra-supercritical (steam pressure)

VVER

water-water reactor (Russian acronym; see PWR)

WDE

water drop erosion

WWER

(see VVER)

Symbols

Symbol

Units

Definition

a

m/s

acoustic velocity

a

m 2/s

thermal conduction

a

m

distance; length

b

m

width; blade chord length

c

m/s

velocity (of steam or fluid)

cp

kJ/(kg׺C)

specific heat capacity under invariable pressure

d

m

diameter; mean diameter

F

m 2

annular area, cross-section area

f

Hz; 1/s

frequency

g

m/s2

free fall acceleration

G

kg/s; t/h

mass flow amount (of steam)

List of Abbreviations and Symbols 439

H h

m

wall thickness, characteristic distance

H

kJ/kg

enthalpy

H

kJ/kg

available energy; enthalpy drop

J 0 (µ), J

(µ)

Bessel functions

k

isentropic index

k

characteristic coefficient

l

m

blade length

L

Laplace operator

M

kg

mass

n

rpm

rotation speed

N

MW

electric power output; load

p

MPa

pressure

r

R

m

radius

s

Laplace transfer parameter

S

-

rate of corrosion-erosion

t

ºC

temperature

T

°K

absolute temperature

T

s

time constant

u

m/s

circular rotation speed

V

kPa

vacuum (in condenser)

v

m 3/kg

specific volume

v

m/s

rate of crack growth

w

m/s

relative velocity (of steam or fluid)

WN

MW/min

rate of ramp load change

W t

ºC/min

rate of ramp temperature change

W

transfer function

x, y, z

m

spatial coordinates

x

m

distance

X

steam dryness

y = 1 – x

steam wetness

z

number of stages

β

exit angles

W/(m2 ׺C)

convection heat transfer coefficient

β

ºC-1

coefficient of cubic expansion

∆HP, etc.

mm

relative rotor expansion (of HP cylinder, etc.)

∆ t

–

ºC

temperature difference

∆ t = ts

ºC

effective temperature difference

t

∆β

flow turn angle

pressure ratio

ζ

energy loss factor

η

efficiency

λ

relative steam velocity

λ

percentage of coarse-grained drops

λ

W(/m׺C)

thermal conduction

flow amount factor

kg/(m×s)

dynamic viscosity

roots of a characteristic equation

ν

Poisson’s ratio

ν

m 2/s

kinematic viscosity

kg/m3

specific density

reaction degree

relative radius

MPa

stress

0.2

MPa

yield limit (yield strength)

s; min; h

time

∆

s

time step

separation efficiency factor

1/s

angular rotation speed; frequency

Subscripts and Superscripts

0

steam conditions at the stage (section, turbine) inlet

steam conditions between the nozzle and blade rows

2

steam conditions at the stage (section, turbine) outlet

a

axial

c

in the condenser

cr

critical

el

electric

ex

exit

ext

external (surface)

fl

across the flange width (temperature difference)

fl-b

between the flange and bolt (temperature difference)

gr

gross

in; 0

initial

ins

insulated (surface)

int

internal (surface)

lk

leakage

m

medium

m

metal

max

maximum

meas

measured

min

minimum

List of Abbreviations and Symbols 441

net

net

nom

nominal

opt

optimum

p

peripheral

r

radial; root

rh

reheat (steam)

s

surface (heated)

sat

saturation

set

set (given)

sh

superheated (main steam)

st

stationary; steam

t

tip

t

temperature (stress)

th

thermal (efficiency)

u

tangential

W

Wilson

wet

wet (steam)

z

axial

θ

tangential; circumferential

Bi =

h

(or )

R

Biot number

λ

λ

Fo =

h 2

(or )

R 2

Fourier number

Gr =

g × β × ∆θ

× R 3

Grashof number

ν 2

M =

c

(or )

w

Mach number

a

a

Nu =

αd (or )

αx

Nusselt number

λst

λst

Pr =

cp µ

Prandtl number

λ

Ra = Gr ×Pr

Rayleigh number

pwd

pwx

Reynolds number

Re =

(or )