How words develop new meanings
(1) monosemy → simple SSW (2-3 meanings) → more complex SSW
(2) words ← new meanings => 2 aspects:
1) Why should new meanings appear at all? What circumstances cause and stimulate their development?
2) How does it happen? What is the nature of the very process of development of new meanings?
Causes of Development of New Meanings
(3) The 1st group - historical or extra-linguistic
changes in a nation's social life → gaps in the vocabulary
↓
New objects, concepts and phenomena → names ← making new words
↑ ↑ (word-building)
borrowing foreign words applying old words to new
objects or notions
(4) the 1st textile factories → mill = these early industrial enterprises
↑
Latin borrowing of the 1st c В. С.
=> mill: a building in which corn is ground into flour > textile factory
(5) the 1st railways → carriage = a railway car
=> carriage: a vehicle drawn by horses > a railway car
(6) stalls, box, pit, circle → nouns describing different parts of a theatre
(= new meanings)
In Russian – by borrowings - партер, ложа, амфитеатр, бельэтаж
(7) The 2nd group - linguistic factors
new meaning + complete change of meaning ← influence of other words,
↑ ↑ mostly of synonyms
new & old meanings old meaning is replaced
coexist in SSW by new meaning
mill meat: “food” (OE)
carriage “flesh of animals used as a food product” (Mod.E.)
(8) OE steorfan = "to perish" + Scand. to die = "to perish"
↓
to starve = "to die (or suffer) from hunger"
(9) О. Е. deor = any beast + borrowed word animal
↓
deer = a certain kind of beast (R. олень)
(10) О. Е. knafa = “boy” + borrowed word boy
↓
knave = "swindler, scoundrel"
The Process of Development and Change of Meaning
old meaning ←connection?→ new meaning
↑
based on some association
(11) mill: a building in which corn is ground into flour > textile factory
↑ ↑
mainly driven by water firstly used water power
↓ ↓
an establishment using water power to produce certain goods
(12) carriage: horse-drawn vehicle > part of a railway train
↓ ↓
related to the idea of travelling;
the job of both is to carry passengers on a journey
(13) box: a rectangular container used a small separate enclosure
for packing or storing things > forming a part of the theatre
↑
resembled packing cases; were enclosed
on all sides and heavily curtained even
on the side facing the audience so as to
conceal the privileged spectators occupying
them from curious or insolent stares
(14) stalls: compartments in stables or privileged and expensive part
sheds for the accommodation > of a theatre
of animals (cows, horses, etc.) ↑
standing space divided by barriers
into sections so as to prevent the
enthusiastic crowd from knocking
one other down and hurting
themselves (possibly first used
humorously or satirically in new sense)
(15) The process of development of a new meaning (or a change of meaning) is traditionally termed transference.
To term it "transference of meaning" - a serious mistake. Any case of semantic change ≠ the meaning, but the word that is being transferred from one referent onto another => the appearance of a new meaning.
(16) 2 types of logical associations → 2 types of transference
↓ ↓
based on resemblance based on contiguity
(similarity)
Transference Based on Resemblance (Similarity)
(17) = linguistic metaphor - A new meaning appears as a result of associating two objects (phenomena, qualities, etc.) due to their outward similarity (box, stall)
(18) eye: “hole in the end of a needle” (cf. with the R. ушко иголки)
the neck of a bottle
drop (drops): "a small particle of water or other liquid"
+
"ear-rings shaped as drops of water" (e. g. diamond drops)
+
"candy of the same shape" (e. g. mint drops)
(19) 
snowdrop
metaphorical change of meaning
bluebell is often observed in idiomatic compounds
(20) branch: limb or subdivision of a tree or bush > a special field of science or
art (a branch of linguistics)
↑
association built b/w
a concrete object & an abstract concept
(21) bar: “barrier” > figurative meaning (as social bars, colour bar, racial bar)
↑
a concrete object is associated with an abstract concept
(22) star: "heavenly body" > "famous actor or actress" + popular sportsmen &
↑ pop-singers, etc.
the first use - humorous or ironical: a kind of semi-god
surrounded by the bright rays of his glory. → ironical colouring
was lost → the association with the original meaning
weakened → gradually erased.
(23) transference based on resemblance – is frequently found in the informal strata of the vocabulary, especially in slang:
a red-headed boy is nicknamed carrot or ginger;
the one who is given to spying and sneaking gets the derogatory nickname of rat;
nut, onion (= head)
saucers (= eyes)
hoofs (= feet)
Transference Based on Contiguity
(24) = linguistic metonymy - the association is based upon subtle psychological links between different objects and phenomena; sometimes traced and identified with much difficulty. The two objects may be associated together:
- because they often appear in common situations => the image of one is easily accompanied by the image of the other;
- on the principle of cause and effect,
- on the principle of common function,
- on the principle of some material and an object which is made of it, etc.
(25) OE glad = "bright, shining" > "joyful"
(the sun, gold & precious stones, ↑
shining armour, etc.) usual association of light with joy
(cf. with the R. светлое настроение; светло на душе)
(26) OE sad = "satisfied > "oversatisfied with food; > "melancholy",
with food" having eaten too much" "sorrowful"
(cf. R. сыт (negative evaluative spiritual discontent
a word of the connotation: physical purely emotional state
same I-E root) unease and discomfort)
(27) foot: part of human body > 1) foot of a bed is the place where the feet rest when one lies in the bed
2) foot of a mountain is its lowest part
(association on common position)
(28) arms: part of human body > arms of an arm-chair is the place where
the arms lie when one is setting in the chair
(29) leg: part of human or animal’s body > leg of a bed (table, chair, etc.) is
the part which serves as a support
(association on common function)
(30) hand: part of human body > 1) hand of a clock (watch) is the part which points to the figures
(association on common function)
2) factory hands, farm hands - strong, skilful hands are the most
important feature that is required of a person engaged
in physical labour (cf. R. рабочие руки)
(
31)
dull:
1)
deficient
in eyesight >
not clear or
bright
(a dull green colour; association
dull light; dull shapes) of cause and
2) deficient in hearing > not loud or distinct effect
(dull sounds)
(32) board: a flat and thin piece of wood; > table (arch.)
a wooden plank association
taffeta: a textile > dress made of taffeta of the material
mink: a textile > mink coat and the object
jersy: a textile > knitted shirt or sweater made from it
(33) Meanings sometimes originate from geographical or proper names (= transference based on contiguity):
China: country, the birthplace of porcelain > "dishes made of porcelain"
Tweed: river > "a coarse wool cloth"
cheviot: Cheviot hills in England > kind of wool cloth
(34) The name of a painter > one of his pictures:
a Matisse = a painting by Matisse
Tropes
(35) long & short – spatial dimension > time
Lat. brevis > brief – spatial dimension > time
(36) Lat. minutus (= small) > minute
Med. Lat. secunda minuta (= second minute, i.e. further subdivision) > second
month – moon > month
year - underlying meaning “spring” > year
to last = to endure – special continuance > time
to endure – to become hard > to last
fast – firmly fixed > rapid
rapacious, rapine > rapid – snatching > fast
quick (native Eng.) – living (quicksilver, quickline, cut of the quick, the quick and the dead) > fast
(37) right – physically straight > right:
OE. wringan (= to twist) > Mod.E. right angle, right away, etc.
wrong – physically crooked (изогнутый, кривой) > wrong
In Mod.E. coll. the shift of meaning has been repeated in the case of straight & crooked.
good – fitting, suitable > good
evil – excessive > evil, mean
bad – physically abnormal (Mid.E.) > bad
true – oak tree > true
(38) head → bridgehead, head of a pin, head of an institution, head of a class, fountain head, head of a coin, head of cattle, headland
Lat. caput (= head) & Fr. chief → captain, capital city, capital (property), chief (n. & adj.), chief (of kitchen).
Broadening (or Generalisation) of Meaning. Narrowing (or Specialisation) of Meaning
(39) Sometimes transference => considerable change in range of meaning
t
o
arrive (Fr.
borr.): "to come to shore, to land" > "to come"
(e. g. to
arrive in a
village, town, city, country,
at a hotel, hostel, college,
theatre, place, etc.).
narrow meaning widened combinability → broad meaning;
developed through transference
based on contiguity; the range
of meaning is much broader
(40) pipe: "a musical wind instrument" > any hollow oblong cylindrical body (e. g. water pipes)
↑
developed through transference based on the similarity of shape (pipe as a musical instrument = a hollow oblong cylindrical object) => considerable broadening of the range of meaning
(41) bird: "the young of a bird" > any animal with wings
↑
developed through transference based on contiguity (the association is obvious). The second meaning is broader and more general
(42) girl: "a small child "a small child + a young + any + any
of either sex" > of the female sex" > unmarried > young > woman
↑ ↑
woman woman (coll.)
Mid.E. transference based
on contiguity → narrowed broadened range of meaning
range of meaning
(43) lady: OE hlǣfdi3e > the wife or daughter > Mod.E. any woman (formal, polite)
= mistress of of a baronet = ↑
the house aristocratic title range of meaning even
= any married ↑ broader than in OE
woman narrowed
range of meaning
(44) Deer: any beast > a certain kind of beast
Meat: any food > a certain food product
Boy: any young person of the male sex > servant of the male sex
↑
more narrow than that of the original meaning;
developed through transference based on contiguity
The So-called “Degeneration” (“Degradation”) and “Elevation” of Meaning
(45) NOT degeneration or elevation of meaning itself, but of the term onto which a word is transferred, so that the term is inaccurate