- •What do you know about the origin of the term phonetics and its history?
- •What does phonetics study?
- •What linguistic sciences is theoretical phonetics connected with?
- •How is phonetics connected with grammar? Give examples.
- •How is Phonetics connected with lexicology? Give examples.
- •How is Phonetics connected with history of the languages? Give examples.
- •How is Phonetics connected with stylistics? Give examples.
- •How is Phonetics connected with non-linguistic sciences?
- •How are consonants grouped according to the place of obstruction and active organs of speech?
- •How are consonants grouped according to point of articulation and manner of production of noise?
- •33) How are consonants grouped according to the work of the vocal cords ?
- •34) How are consonants grouped according to the position of the soft palate?
- •35) How are vowels grouped according to the position of the tongue?
- •36) How are vowels grouped according to the position of the lips?
- •37) How are vowels grouped according to the length?
- •38) How are vowels grouped according to the degree of tenseness?
- •39) What is an assimilation?
- •40) What is an assimilated sound?
- •41. What is an assimilating sound?
- •42. What is accommodation or adaptation, its types?
- •43. What is elision? Give examples.
- •44. What are the types of assimilation?
- •45. When does assimilation affect the point of articulation? Give examples.
- •46. When does assimilation affect the active organs of speech? Give examples.
- •47. When does assimilation affect the manner of production of noise? Give examples.
- •48. When does assimilation affect the work of the vocal cords? Give examples.
- •49. When does assimilation affect the lip position? Give examples
- •50. When does assimilation affect the position of the soft palate? Give examples.
- •51. What are the degrees of assimilation?
- •52. When is assimilation complete?
- •53. When is assimilation incomplete?
- •54. When is assimilation intermediate?
- •55. What are the directions of assimilation?
- •56. When is assimilation progressive?
- •63. What is the definition of a phoneme given by V.A.Vassilyev
- •64. How was phonology defined by l.V.Shcherba?
- •65) What is an allophone? Give its definition
- •66) How are allophones grouped?
- •67) What allophones are the most representative?
- •69) What is a positional allophone?
- •70) What is a combinatory allophone?
- •71) What are the aspects of a phoneme?
- •72) Why are phonemes material, real and objective?
- •73. Why are phonemes abstructional and generalized?
- •74. Why do phonemes have functional aspect?
- •75. How many functions does a phoneme fulfill?
- •76. What is the principal function of a phoneme?
- •77. Why is the distinctive function the most important one?
- •78. What does the constitutive function manifest itself in?
- •79. What does recognitive function consist of?
- •80. What two types of mistakes may wrong pronunciation produce?
- •How can a syllable be defined?
- •How can a syllable be formed?
- •What sounds are syllabic in English? Give examples.
- •What are the theories of syllable division and syllable formation?
- •What is expiratory theory?
- •What is the sonority theory?
- •7) What is a more popularly accepted theory of syllable division and syllable formation?
- •8) Who propounded the sonority theory and what did he try to prove?
- •9) Who put forward to a new theory of syllable division and syllable formation?
- •10) What is the muscular tension theory?
- •11) According to what theory may all consonants be of three types?
- •12) What is prof. N.I.Zhinkin’s theory about syllable division and syllable formation?
- •13. Which speech organ causes a syllable to be formed according to prof. N.I.Zhinkin?
- •14. What are the types of syllable?
- •15. What are the fundamental types of syllables?
- •16. When can a syllable be open?
- •17. When can a syllable be closed?
- •18. What is the syllable division governed by in the sequence cvcv? Give examples.
- •19. Why is correct syllable division at the junction of words so important in English?
- •20. What functions does the syllabic structure perform?
- •21. What is the word accent?
- •22. What are the types of word accent?
- •What are the degrees of word accent given by British and Russian Phoneticians?
- •What degrees of word accent do the American scientists suggest?
- •What degrees of word accent do the most American descriptivists distinguish?
- •31. How are languages classified according to the position of word accent?
- •32. What are types of free word accent? Give examples.
- •33. What are the tendencies of word accent?
- •34. What is the recessive tendency?
- •39. How is intonation defined by many linguists?
- •40. What are the approaches to the definition of intonation?
- •41. What are the components of intonation?
- •42. What is the speech melody?
- •43. What parts do intonation groups consist of?
- •44. What is the terminal tone?
- •45. What is the sentence stress?
- •46. What is the tempo?
- •47. What is the timbre?
- •48. What is the pausation?
- •49. What is rhythm?
- •What are the functions of intonation?
- •51. What variants of pronunciation can be distinguished within one and the same region?
- •52. What are the types of pronunciation in Great Britain?
- •53. What is the standard or received type of pronunciation in Great Britain?
- •54. What is the local variant of pronunciation spoken in London?
- •55. What are the peculiar features of Northern literary pronunciation?
- •56. What are the peculiar features of Scotch literary pronunciation?
- •57. What types of pronunciation are observed in the usa?
- •58. What are the peculiar features of Eastern American pronunciation?
- •59. What are the peculiar features of Southern American pronunciation?
- •60. What are the peculiar features of General American pronunciation?
How can a syllable be formed?
A syllable can be formed by a vowel: (V) in English, (Г) in Rus-sian; by a vowel and a consonant: (VC) in English, (ГС) in Russian; by a consonant and a sonorant (CS).
The peak or the crest of the syllable is formed by a vowel or a so-norant. The consonants which precede the peak and follow it are called slopes.
Vowels /эе, е, л, v, a,:, o:, ei, ai, аи, еэ, oi/ constitute almost always the peaks of prominence, /э, i, u, эй/ occur, as a rule, in unaccented syllables.
The consonant /rj/ never begins, /w/ never terminates the syllable.
The sonorants /w, r, j/ function as consonants, because they occur only before vowels: SVC structural type, e.g. /wi5, rait, jes/.
The sonorants /1, m, n/ can form syllables in terminal position, when preceded by a consonant, e.g. /'pi:pl, iga:dn, Ып, 'j 9
What sounds are syllabic in English? Give examples.
The distribution of consonants in the syllables of the C£CC type is characterized by the following features: the initial consonant may be represented by /p, d, t, tf, dg, f, v, s, z, J\ 5, r/. The peak of syllable is represented by the sonorants /n, 1/, they are immediately followed by /t, d, s/; final consonants are represented by /t, s, z/. E.g.
innocents agents patents tangents parents serpents students servants pheasants errands patients scaffolds licensed merchants heralds
The syllables of the CSVSCC type: entrants /lentrants/, emigrants ^emigrants/, minstrels /'minstrels/, hydrants /lhaidrents/ can5 be pronounced without (V)—CSSCC type, e.g.
emigrants /'emigrnts/ entrants /lentrnts/ minstrels /immstrlz/ hydrants /'haidrnts/
What are the theories of syllable division and syllable formation?
There are different points of view on syllable formation which are briefly the following.
1. The most ancient theory states that there are as many sylla¬
bles in a word as there are vowels.
2. The expiratory theory states that there are as many syllables
in a word as there are expiration pulses. The borderline between the
syllables is ^according to this theory, the moment of the weakest ex¬
piration. This theory is inconsistent because it is quite possible to
170 pronounce several syllables in one articulatory effort' or expiration, e.g. seeing /Isi: 15/.
3. The sonority theory states'that there are as many syllables in a word as there are peaks of prominence or sonority.
Speech sounds pronounced with uniform force, length and pitch, differ in inherent prominence or sonority. For example, when the Rus¬sian vowels /а, о, э, у, и/ are pronounced on one and the same level, their acoustic intensity, or sonority is different: the strongest is /a/, then go /о, э, у, и/,
4 The arc of^loudness" or "arc of articulatory tension" theory is based on L. V. Shcherba's statement that the centre of a syllable is we syllable forming phoneme. Sounds which precede or follow it constitute a chain, or an arc, which is weak in the beginning and in the end and strong in the middle.