35. Metonymy.

Metonymy (Gk. metonymia 'changing of name') is a trope based upon contiguity – upon a real connection (inward or outward) – between the object of nomination and the object whose name by way of associations is used to replace it. (Cf. with metaphor where this connection is non-existent.)

Metonymy can also be defined as a nomination of the object through one of its inherent properties.

E.g. ‘Hulloa, fatty. What do you want?’ (Maugham)

Function. Metonymy usually creates an ironic or even sarcastic effect, sometimes it serves intensification.

According to the relation between the tenor and the vehicle the following types of metonymy are differentiated:

1.the abstract stands for the concrete:

E.g. But then he did not really want any of these people, did not want company for company’s sake. What he really wanted was Love, Romance, a Wonderful Girl of His Own. And these had lately all been assuming the same shape in his mind, that of Lena Golspie. (Priestley)

2.the container is mentioned instead of the contents:

E.g. He sipped one more bottle (of whisky).

3.the material instead of the thing made of it:

E.g. She was glancing through his water colours.

4.the maker stands for the thing made:

E.g. The Rembrandt turned out to be fake.

He adores Mozart.

5.the instrument is put for the agent:

E.g. His brush can be easily recognized.

6.a part is put for the whole (synecdoche):

E.g. There were long legs all around.

Metonymy in many cases is trite.

E.g. to cite Byron, hands wanted.

Synecdoche can as well be expressed grammatically.

An example of traditional (stereotyped) synecdoche is the use of the singular (the so-called generis singularis) when the plural (the whole class) is meant.

E.g. ‘A woman can forgive a man for the harm he does her’ he said, ‘but she can never forgive him for the sacrifices he makes on her account.’ (or: The woman ...). (Maugham)

The opposite type of synecdoche (‘the whole for a part’) occurs

-when the name of the genus is used in place of the name of the species:

E.g. Stop torturing the poor animal (instead of the poor dog); or

-when the 'plural of disapprobation' is resorted to:

E.g. Reading books when I am talking to you! (while one book is meant).

40. Stylistic use of set expressions

Cliché is a word or expression which has lost its originality or effectiveness because it has been used too often.

e.g. It’s a crying shame.

In other words, a cliché is a kind of stable word combination which has, become familiar, has won general recognition and which by its iteration has been accepted as a unit of the language.

e.g. rosy dreams of youth, rising expectations.

The effects achieved by using cliches include besides expressing emotions or attitudes, also evaluation - to see things through rose-coloured glasses, brevity -compare Jack-qf-all-trades and a person who can turn his hands to any or any kind of work.

Proverbs are short, well-known, supposedly wise sayings usually in simple language. E.g. Don’t put all your eggs in one basket.

Proverbs _are -expressions of culture that are passed from generation to generation. They are the words of wisdom of a culture lessons that the people of that culture want their children to learn and to live by - lessons that reflect the people's values and attitudes towards life.

Proverbs are- usually didactic and involve imagery. Brevity in proverbs manifests itself the omission of articles and connectives.

e.g. First come, first served. Out of sight, out of mind.

The usage of proverbs is marked by their possible modifications, which result in a particular effect: the modified form of the proverb is perceived against the background of the fixed form, e.g. Come, he. said, milk is spilt (lit s no use crying oyer spilt milk).

The water will remain troubled enough for somebody's fishing to be profitable.(It is good fishing in troubled waters.)

Epigrams is a short clever amusing saying or a poem. E.g. Everything I like is either illegal, immoral or fattening.

In most cases epigrams are witty statements coined by some individuals whose names we know. e.g. A thing of beauty is a joy forever (Keats).

Originally, a form of monumental description in ancient Greece, the epigrams was developed into a literary form by poets of Hellenistic age.

Quotationsis a phrase or sentence taken from a work of literature or other piece of writing and repeated, especially in order to prove a point or support an argument. Quotations are usually marked graphically by inverted commas, dashes or Italics, they are also mostly used accompanied by a reference to the author of the quotation. Especially frequent are quotations in scientific texts, in religious writing, in the publicists style, e.g. To be or not to be?

Friends, Romans, countrymen ■ - lend me your ears. (Shakespeare)

Allusions is an indirect reference, or a hint by word or phrase to a historical, literary, mythological or biblical fact which is presumably known to the listener/reader. As a rule, no indication of the source of the allusion is given, which makes it different from quotations and epigrams. Allusions are based on the accumulated experience of the writer who presupposes a similar experience and knowledge in the reader. \ у e.g. Here comes the prodigal son. (the Bible)

Allusion is a means of establishing a cultural tradition, a way of adding cultural value to the text. It is a common device in advertisements and headlines, e.g. Plan ahead: it wasn't raining when Noah built the ark. (the Bible) Allusions may function within the literary text as similes, metaphors, metaphorical epithets, periphrases, etc.

Decomposition of Set Phrases

Phraseological unitsare used as expressive means of language because many of them have their own stylistic coloring, e.g. The sword of Damocles.

Their meaning can be understood only from the combination as-a whole. The stylistic device of decomposition of fused (set-) phrases consists in reviving the independent meanings which make up the component parts of the fusion.

There are several types of violation of set expressions:

• prolongation

It was raining cats and dogs, and two kittens and a puppy landed on my window-sill.

• interaction: to be fed up with mth + to be fed to the teeth

e.g. There are the words of a man who for some reason not disclosed is fed up with the front teeth with the adored object;

• substitution

e.g. When it comes to metaphor there is no place like Rome (= there is no place like home).

Sometimes set phrases, proverbs and sayings may be decomposed for creating a humorous effect.

e.g. An apple a day keeps the doctor away —> An onion a day keeps everybody away.

Too many cooks spoil the broth —» Too many cooks spoil the figure.