Verbal substitution

Unlike the nominal substitute ‘one’, which always operates on the nominal group, the verbal substitution operates on the verbal group. It functions as the head of the verbal group, in the place that is occupied by the lexical verb; and its position is always final in the group. Verbal substitution in English language is made by using the verb ‘do’, as in:

A: You think Joan already knows? B: I think everybody does.

The verbal substitute ‘does’, in the second sentence, substitutes for the verb ‘knows’ in the first sentence, and so serves to link the two sentences anaphorically. It will be possible if we maintain the verb ‘knows’ in the second sentence to read: ‘I think everybody knows.’ Moreover, the verbal substitute ‘do’ can also substitute for a verb plus certain other elements in the clause, as in:

He never really succeeded in his ambitions. He might have done, one felt, had it not been for the restlessness of his nature.

The verbal substitute ‘done’ in the second sentence substitutes not only for the verb ‘succeeded’ in the first sentence but also all the other elements accompanying the verb in the clause ‘succeeded in his ambitions.

Other operators and auxiliaries allow ellipsis of the predication, but can also be treated together with the pro-forms.

A: John can drive a car. B: I think BOB can (drive a car) TOO.

A: Was the entire building destroyed? B. Destroyed? A: Yes, it was (destroyed).

A: Have they seen the play? B: No, they haven’t (seen the play).

There can be combinations of operator and auxiliaries with such ellipsis:

A: Has the show started? B: It may have (started).

A: Should she have been taking that medicine? B: Yes, she should have been (taking the medicine).

The substitution may be a complex pro-form: a combination of one of the auxiliaries with the pro-forms so, that, or it.

so do type: A: John drives a car. B: So does BOB.

do so type: A: Have you sent your donation? B: I did soyesterday.

do that type: Do you know who broke the television set? B: I heard JOHN did that.

do it type: A: Your brother said he was going to send a letter of protest to the President. B: He did it last week.

Clausal substitution

Unlike the two preceding substitution types, nominal substitute ‘one’- which always operates on the nominal group, and verbal substitute ‘do’- which always operates on the verbal group, clausal substitute ‘so’ and the negative form ‘not’ operate on the entire clause, i.e. they do not presuppose a noun or a verb but the entire clause.

Is there going to be an earthquake? - It says so.

Has everyone gone home? - I hope not.

It can be seen that the clausal substitute ‘so’ in the second sentence of the first example presupposes the whole of the clause ‘there’s going to be an earthquake’, and in the second example the negative form ‘not’presupposes the whole of the clause ‘everyone gone home.‘

Not in why not and if not is a negative pro-form for the whole clause, while so is the pro-form for the equivalent of the whole clause in the case of if so, and (less commonly) why so: A. : I don’t want to go in. B: Why not(=Why don’t you want to go in?)

So is used as a pro-form for a direct object clause: Oxford is likely to win the next boat race. All my friends say so. (= that Oxford is likely to win the next boat race'

Not can often serve as the negative of so in this use. Many people believe there is life on other planets. My father thinks so, but I believe not.

In this use, not is restricted mainly to verbs of belief or assumption, while so extends also to some verbs of speaking. Verbs that commonly allow both so and not as pro-forms for the direct object clause include such verbs as assume, believe, expect, fancy, guess, hope, imagine, presume, suppose, think, understand.

PRACTICE

Exercise 1.Think over the following statements and say whether they are right or wrong:

• Substitution is the process of replacing one item by another at a particular place in a structure.

• Substitution is used when a speaker or writer wishes to repeat a lexical item.

• Substitution is not only a grammatical category but also a lexical one.

• There are two types of substitution.

• When something in text is being substituted, it follows that the substituted item maintains the same structural function as the presupposed item.

• In nominal substitution, the most typical substitution words are “do and does”.

• In verbal substitution, the most common substitute are the words ‘one’ and ‘ones’.

In clausal substitution only one word is substituted.

Some time relaters can be pro-forms for place adjuncts.

The verbal substitution operates on the nominal group.

Exercise 2. Find all substitutions in the following texts

Text A

The scientific study of memory began in the early 1870s when a German philosopher, Hermann Ebbinghaus, came up with the revolutionary idea that memory could be studied experimentally. In doing so he broke away from a 2000-year-old tradition that firmly assigned the study of memory to the philosopher rather than to the scientist. He argued that the philosophers had come up with a wide range of possible interpretations of memory but had produced no way of deciding which amongst these theories offered the best explanation of memory. He aimed to collect objective experimental evidence of the way in which memory worked in the hope that this would allow him to choose between the various theories.

Text B

The human memory system is remarkably efficient, but it is of course extremely fallible. That being so, it makes sense to take full advantage of memory aids to minimize the disruption caused by such lapses. If external aids are used, it is sensible to use them consistently and systematically – always put appointments in your diary, always add wanted items to a shopping list, and so on. If you use internal aids such as mnemonics, you must be prepared to invest a reasonable amount of time in mastering them and practising them. Mnemonics are like tools and cannot be used until forged. Overall, however, as William James pointed out : ‘Of two men with the same outward experiences and the same amount of mere native tenacity, the one who thinks over his experiences most and weaves them into systematic relations with each other will be the one with the best memory.’

Text C

This conflict between tariff reformers and free traders was to lead to the “agreement to differ” convention in January 1932, and the resignation of the Liberals from the government in September 1932; but, until they resigned, the National Government was a genuine coalition in the sense in which that term is used on the continent: a government comprising independent yet conflicting elements allied together, a government within which party conflict was not superseded but rather contained - in short, a power-sharing government, albeit a seriously unbalanced one.

Text D

The number of different words relating to “camel” is said to be about six thousand. There are terms to refer to riding camels, milk camels and slaughter camels; other terms to indicate the pedigree and geographical origin of the camel; and still others to differentiate camels in different stages of pregnancy and to specify in-numerable other characteristics important to a people so dependent upon camels in their daily life.

Text E

There were, broadly, two interrelated reasons for this, the first relating to Britain's economic and Imperial difficulties, the second to the internal dissension in all three parties.

Exercise 3.Explain the substitutions in the following sentences:

1. Don't you ever read the Times, Watson? I've often advised you to do so if you want to know something.

2. When I quote others I do so in order to express my own ideas more clearly.

3. Any people anywhere, being inclined and having the power, have the right to rise up, and shake off the existing government, and form a new one that suits them better.

4. All generalizations are false, including this one.

5. Alan:Hey guys, when's the next Haley’s comet?

Stu: I don’t think it’s for like another sixty years or something.

Alan: But it’s not tonight, right?

Stu: No, I don’t think so.

Exercise 4.Define the meaning and function of the pronoun “one”.

1.White’s examination was the last one.

2. His mother was a poor peasant woman, too poor even to think of such a thing as buying skates for her little ones.

3. One can’t help being nice to Larry.

4. Elliot called me up one morning.

5. And then he came to a great hole. One crawled through locked briars and branches [...].

6. He came down than, his face compressed like that of one bearing pain.

7. I never spend more than one hour in the gallery. That is as long as one’s power of appreciation permits.

8. In truth it was a crisis and a great one.

9. The little ones toddled after their mother (the duck) who led them quickly to cross the opening.

10. You know where the cake is – that new one?

11. And the second pointwas the one for us to give our minds to.

12. I saw at a glance that the last two months had been very trying ones for him.

Exercise 5. Comment on the use of the pronoun “that” (Those) and translate the sentences.

1. The impression conveyed by his mouth and chin was that of a delicate and highly sensitive nature.

2. His temperament was that of a poet.

3. The figure was that of a middle-aged man.

4. His face was that of a comic actor, a singer of songs, a man never at a loss for an answer.

5. Burlop’s reaction was unexpectedly different from that of others.

6. A low wall divided the court yard from that of the next house.

7. I found that I was crossing the bridge over the Regent’s Park canal, which runs parallel with that in the Zoological Gardens.

8. The child meekly raised his eyes, and encountered those of a Forsyte.

Exercise 6.Fill the gaps in the following sentences by using either what or which.

1. He didn’t believe..... I said.... annoyed me very much.

2. In detective stories the murderer is always caught...... doesn’t happen in real life.

3. He wasn’t surprised at.... he saw because I told him.... to expect.

4. In hospitals they wake patients at 6 a.m. ... is much too early.

5. There was no directory in the first telephone box..... meant that I had to go to another one.

6. I did..... I could....wasn’t much.

7. The clock struck thirteen....made everyone laugh.

8. I am sure ....you say true.

9. We traveled second class.....is cheaper than first class but more crowded.

10. He didn’t know the language ....made it difficult for him to get a job.

11. People whose names begin with “A” always get taken first ....is the most unfair.

12. He played the violin all night ....annoyed the neighbors.

13. When the mechanic opened the bonnet he saw at once .....was wrong with the car.

14.I didn’t buy anything because I didn’t see ....I wanted.

15.They sang as they marched....helped them to forget how tired they were.

16.He was very rude to the customs officer ....of course made things worse.

17.Show me ....you’ve got in your hand.

18.Tell me ....you want to do.

19.All the roads were blocked by snow ....meant that help could not reach us till the following spring.

20.She expected to clean the house in half an hour .....is impossible.