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1. The disease tends to be less prevalent when successive crops of potatoes are grown. 2. This insect sucks the juices of the plant and under favourable conditions reproduces rapidly by giving birth to young during the summer and later by laying eggs. 3. Resistant varieties are available at the present time. 4. The leaf tissue upon which the greenbug feeds turns to a typical green colour. 5. Four races of the European corn borer exist in the United States.

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Text “FARMS IN BRITAIN“

Geographically Great Britain consists of Highland Britain and Lowland Britain. Highland Britain is the North and in the West. Lowland Britain is in the south-east.

Britain has a mild climate. The temperature seldom exceeds 32Cº or falls below zero. The driest period is from March to June, and the wettest months are from October to January. The weather changes with the wind. Winds from different part of the world ranging polar to tropical often visit Britain. Usually the westerly winds from Atlantic carry warmth and moisture of lower latitudes into Britain. Thus farmers work fields all year round. Although Britain is a densely populated, industrialized country, agriculture is still one of the largest and the most important activities. Four fifth of the land is devoted to it, and it provides employment for over a million people. The agricultural area of England is toward the English Channel and the continent of Europe.

The main branch of British agriculture is dairy farming. Milk and milk products are famous all over the word. Dairying is most common in the west of England, where the wetter climate encourages the growth of good grass. Sheep and cattle are reared in the hilly and moorland areas of northern and south-western England.

The types of farms are different in different soil and climatic areas. The soil in many parts of Highland Britain is thin and poor. Lowland Britain is a rich area with fertile soil. So its best farmland lies in the south-eastern plains. In the eastern part of Britain most farms are arable. The farmers grow crops here. The chief grain crops are wheat and barley. The south of England is rural, with many fertile valleys and numerous hedges dividing the well-cultivated fields and pastures. Most of the farms are less than 50 acres each. Small farms in Britain are usually mixed ones where farmers both grow crops and keep farm animals. Pig and poultry farms are common in all parts of Britain. The main agricultural products are wheat, barley, oats, potatoes, milk and different kinds of meat.

As we have mentioned most of Britain is the farming land divided into many fields. A comparatively high level of agriculture enables Britain to provide about half of the need food from its soil. So Britain usually imports meat, butter, wheat, tea, fruit and tobacco. Today the main tendency in agricultural development of this country is that small traditional farms are gradually disappearing because they cannot compete with big modern industrial farms.

Text “Mastitis”

We think that the cow of the future will be taller than in the past. The taller cow will have an udder higher off the ground and less chance for injury. To produce higher yields year after year, our cows must have the high dairy capacity and strength. In order to maintain maximum levels of production, it is necessary to supplement a dairy cow with large quantities of grain and concentrates. Though some cows have lived 17 years or more, the average cow is culled or dies between five and six years of age. Each year, 20% of the animals more than two years old are culled or lost from the milking herd because of low production, infertility, mastitis and so on.

Mastitis is an inflammation of the udder, caused either by infection or udder stress on the delicate mammary tissues, or a combination of both. In most areas, it is common practice to conduct routine tests for mastitis. Udders or individual quarters of the udder infected with bacteria are treated with certain antibiotics that are effective in eliminating the bacteria. It is becoming evident that the most important factors controlling mastitis are proper milking equipment and good milking practices. Most cows are now milked by machine. To avoid abnormal stress on the mammary tissues, it is important to operate milking machines in accordance with the recommendation of the manufacturer and to keep equipment in proper operating condition.

Text “Prevention of Gross Vitamin Deficiency Symptoms”

The expression of vitamin deficiencies in animals varies with the vitamin involved, usually reflecting directly or indirectly the physiological derangement caused by the lack of adequate vitamin intake.

In immature animals, a common symptom is reduced growth rate. Examples of other vitamin deficiency symptoms in animals are these: reproductive failure, reduced vigor, greater susceptibility to disease, bone deformities, failure of blood to coagulate normally, rough and lusterless hair coat and skin lesions. The lack of thiamine (vitamin B₁) was found to cause beriberi; a deficiency of niacin was one of the causative factors in pellagra; pernicious anemia patients responded to vitamin B in therapy; vitamin D supplementation of children’s diets prevented rickets, vitamin С in the diet prevented the development of a condition called scurvy. Vitamin E is believed to be involved in oxidation – reduction processes, electron transfer. Water soluble В was found to contain groups of compounds now identified and referred to as the В complex group. More fat-soluble vitamins, including vitamins D, E and K, were isolated and identified and now grouped with A, the name of the original "fat soluble A".

Text “Mass And Pedigree Selection”

The simplest form of selection is what is termed mass or phenotypic selection – the choice of breeding-stock on the simple basis of individual merits. The application of this process has given very different results according to the kind of characters to which it has been applied. Obviously the degree of success attained will depend on the accuracy with which the genetic make up is reflected in the visible or measurable characters. Thus if we wished to obtain a race of single-combed fowls from a mixed population, a system of mass selection would give immediate and completely successful results. For various reasons, however, the visible characters of the animal may be unsatisfactory, or even misleading, as a guide to the qualities that it is capable of transmitting. Characters like egg-production in fowls or milk-production in cattle are determined in part only by heredity, being influenced to a very marked extent by the conditions of nurture.

Pedigree, when rationally used, forms a valuable aid to the breeder in his work of selection. Pedigree must never be regarded as an end in itself; individual merit must always be considered first – but the two taken in conjunction are undoubtedly a far better guide than either considered alone. The essential questions that a breeder should ask himself in attempting to evaluate a particular pedigree are: 1) What was the average merit of the animal's immediate ancestors? 2) What evidence is there that their good qualities were regularly transmitted from generation to generation? If we have a good individual, the progeny of good and true-breeding parents, it is probably that it will transmit its good qualities. The commonest error in the interpretation of pedigrees is that of attaching undue importance to far-back ancestors, and in particular to descent in the direct female line from particular foundation females. It is quite certain that the average influence of any single animal in even the third of fourth ancestral generation is very slight indeed, and it is doubtful whether in practice there is much to be gained by looking back beyond three generations.

Selecting and Managing TMR Mixers for Dairy Operations

Feed costs account for 40 to 50% of the production costs on dairies. Fluctuating feed and milk prices require that dairy producers maximize income over feed costs. Ration performance is dependent on many factors, including ingredient choice, ration formulation, and feed/feeding management. When investigating poor herd performance, many times the problem is not the ration formulation. Often the problem lies in the management of that ration somewhere between the commodity shed and the feed bunk.

Poor feeding management can contribute to unacceptable herd health problems. Formulating diets to contain adequate energy for high milk production often results in diets with high levels of grain. Combine this with the lower intakes of transition, early lactation, or hospital cows, or during periods of summer heat and there is a high risk factor for inadequate fiber intake.

As diets may include processed forages and a range of by-products, the physical nature of the fiber may be altered. Small particle size may reduce rumination and saliva flow. The effects of inadequate fiber in lactation rations can be noticed through erratic dry matter intakes, decreased milk yields, lowered milk fat production, and health problems (laminitis, ketosis, displaced abomasums). The importance of adequate fiber in the ration to maintain rumen health is typically recognized by the dairy producer. Subacute acidosis can cause significant losses to the dairy producer (lowered production, health problems, higher culling rates) and effects may be long-term. Laminitis is acknowledged as the primary contributor to lameness in dairy cattle and can cost the dairy producer as much as $90 per cow per year based on an incidence rate of 30% (Berry, 1999). The economic impact of lameness is due to decreased milk yield, discarded milk due to treatment, delayed reproduction, increased involuntary culling, and additional management time. The incidence of laminitis in the United States confinement operations is thought to average 35% and while, the causes of laminitis are several, lactic acidosis appears the primary culprit (Shearer, 1996 and personal communication).

Literature reports of cow response to effective fiber (particle size, forage level) led to an interest in developing a diagnostic tool to evaluate effective fiber. As a result, particle size separators have been developed to measure particle size distribution in feeds. These tools consist of a series of stacked screens designed to separate a ration into various particle sizes. Particle size evaluation is an attempt to have a visual, quantitative assessment of the ration proportions that are rapidly digestible, moderately digestible, and effective in stimulating cud chewing and buffer production. Some commercial laboratories offer particle size separation analysis as part of their available services. There are also separators available for on-farm demonstration analysis, such as the Penn State Particle Size Separator (Heinrichs, 1996). This tool separates out the particles into three groups: particles greater than .75", between .75" an" .31", and those smaller than .31". The top screen (retaining particles greate" than .75") identifies those particles that will be included in the rumen mat and will stimulate cud chewing and saliva production; the middle screen (particles between .75" and .31") represents the portion of the TMR that is moderately digestible; while the bottom pan (particles smaller than .31") represents particles that are rapidly digestible and/or may be removed from the rumen in the fluid outflow (Lammers et al., 1996). Use of the separator is fairly simple and can be used on-farm to monitor changes in forage harvesting procedures or feed mixing schemes.