• Such sentences as Похолодало. Стемнело. We can translate with the the help of English verb to be in all tenses( future past present)/ To be- is predicate while the pronoun it will take part of the subject/ Весна – It is spring Холодно – It is cold . And also we can translate different sentences using such constructions Мне трудно дышать— it is difficult for me to breath

• Such impersonal sentences we will use to speak about the weather with the verns  с глаголами to rain, to snow, to hail, to drizzle

• Осенью часто идет дождь – It often rains in autumn

• Also to speak about the time  Сейчас 11 часов – it is 11 o’clock now

• Impersonal sentences are often used to describe actions that require an infinitive, which involve words such as never, to appear, to seem, to turn out, to happen

•  It is never late to say “excuse me” – Никогда не поздно сказать «прости»

• Impersonal sentence used to express the modality with verbs can, may, must. In this case, a formal subject is the word one, which, when translated into the Russian language is omitted.

• Здесь нельзя курить – One must not smoke here

14) Местоимение it в функции формального подлежащего употребляется с некоторыми глаголами в страдательном залоге. Такие страдательные обороты соответствуют в русском языке неопределенно-личным оборотам:

It is said... It is believed... It is expected...

Говорят... Полагают... Ожидают...

Местоимение it в функции формального подлежащего употребляется также и при наличии подлежащего предложения, выраженного инфинитивом, герундием или придаточным предложением и стоящего после сказуемого:

It was difficult to find a suitable steamer. It’s no use telling him about it. It was clear that he would not come.

Было трудно найти подходящий пароход. Бесполезно говорить ему об этом. Было ясно, что он не придет.

16)

2. Compound Sentences

A compound sentence refers to a sentence made up of two independent clauses (or complete sentences) connected to one another with a coordinating conjunction. Coordinating conjunctions are easy to remember if you think of the words "FAN BOYS":

For And Nor But

1. Joe waited for the train, but the train was late.

2. Mary and Samantha arrived at the bus station before noon, and they left on the bus before I arrived.  

Coordinating conjunctions are useful for connecting sentences, but compound sentences often are overused. While coordinating conjunctions can indicate some type of relationship between the two independent clauses in the sentence, they sometimes do not indicate much of a relationship. The word "and," for example, only adds one independent clause to another, without indicating how the two parts of a sentence are logically related. Too many compound sentences that use "and" can weaken writing.

Clearer and more specific relationships can be established through the use of complex sentences. 

3. Complex Sentences

A complex sentence is made up of an independent clause and one or more dependent clauses connected to it. A dependent clause is similar to an independent clause, or complete sentence, but it lacks one of the elements that would make it a complete sentence. 

Dependent clauses begin with subordinating conjunctions. Below are some of the most common subordinating conjunctions:

• After although because when while

A complex sentence joins an independent clause with one or more dependent clauses.

Complex sentences are often more effective than compound sentences because a complex sentence indicates clearer and more specific relationships between the main parts of the sentence. The word "before," for instance, tells readers that one thing occurs before another. A word such as "although" conveys a more complex relationship than a word such as "and" conveys.

Types of subordinate clauses

I. The adverbial clause in a complex sentence performs the function of any part of the sentence: subject, the nominal part of the predicate, complement, and determining the circumstances.

II. Relative clauses subject (Subject Clauses) operate in a complex sentence function of the subject and answer the questions of who? (Who?), What? (what?). They are connected with the main proposals of the Union thatчто), whether, if (ли), which (который), how (как), why (почему) и др.:

That he has made a mistake is strange. — Странно, что он сделал ошибку.

Where he works is not important. — Где он работает — неважно.

III. Relative clauses predicates (Predicative Clauses) perform the function of the nominal part of the predicate and answer the question what is the subject? They are connected to the main clause the same unions as the clauses to be:

The question is whether they will be able to help us. - Вопрос заключается в том, смогут ли они помочь нам.

IV. Additional clauses (Object Clauses) operate in a complex sentence function of direct or indirect prepositional complement. They answer the question what? (What) and not separated by a comma from the main offer: Не told us that he felt ill. - Он сказал нам, что заболел.

V. attributive clauses (Attributive Clauses) perform in the sentence function definitions and answer the questions of what? which? (What?). They are connected to the main supply allied words, pronouns ~ who (which) Whose (whose, which), which, that (that) and adverbs when (when) where clause (where), (where), why (why):

I have found the book that I was looking for. - I found the book I was looking for.

VI. Adverbial clauses (Adverbial Clauses) perform in the sentence functions of the various circumstances and are divided into adverbial proposals: a) time, b) the place, c) causes, d) the investigation, d) mode of action, e) concessive, f) purpose, h) conditions.

Subordinate time answer the question when? (When?), Since when? (Since when?), How long? (How long?) And are connected with the main unions when (when), Whenever (whenever), 'while' (while), as with (when)

We have not had any news from him since he left Moscow. - We have not had any news from him since he left Moscow.

Relative clauses place to answer questions where? (Where? Where?), From where? (? From) and connected to the main supply allied words where (where, where), wherever the (wherever, wherever)

Wherever he went, he was welcome. -

Relative clauses reasons answer the question why? (Why?) And are connected with the main proposals of the Union Because (because), as with (since), since (since), now that (now that, as):

Now that he is here, he can help you. -

Investigation clauses express consequence of the entire content of the main clause, and connected to the main clause so that Union (so):

Do not went to the lecture early so that he got a good seat. - He went to a lecture early, so he took a good place.

Relative clauses of manner answer the question how? (As how?) And connected to unions mainly as (a), as if (as though) (seems as if), that (it):

You ought to write as he does. -

Concessive clauses indicate the fact that the action takes place in spite of the main clause, and are connected with the main proposals of the Union though (although) (although), in spite of the fact that (even though):

Do not went out in spite of the fact that he had a bad cold. - He came in spite of the fact that he was very cold.

Relative clauses targets indicate the purpose for which the action takes the main proposals and answer questions what for? (Why? Why?), For what purpose? ( for what purpose?). They are connected with the main proposals of the Union so that, so, in order that (to, to). The predicate of the proposals expressed by the verbs may (might) and should in conjunction with an infinitive without to:

The teacher gave him the text-book so that (in order that) he might learn his lesson. -

17) Latyshev calls 3 main causes of translation transformations:

1. The differences in the source and target language systems

a) in one of the languages ​​is not a category is in the other language.

2. Differences norms source and target language. In violation of the norms we face in cases where the meaning of the phrase is clear, however, is understanding of the wrongness of speech (standard deviations).

3. Mismatch USUS acting among media source and target language

Arkhipov AF selects eight motives for transformation in order to achieve a higher degree of equivalence:

1. The desire to avoid violations of the compatibility of units in the target language, the so-called literalism.

2. The desire idiomatizirovat translation, t. E. To use expressions and structures most commonly used in the target language.

3. The need to address cross-language differences in the design of homogeneous parts of the sentence.

4. The desire to avoid the alien target language word-formation models.

5. The desire to avoid unnatural, unaesthetic some repetitions, awkwardness, confusion and irrationality of expression.

6. Commitment to a more compact version of the translation.

7. The desire to convey to the receptor important background information or remove the excess.

8. The desire to recreate difficult to transmit wordplay, imagery.

1. Position a linguistic unit in the language system (part of speech)

2. Intralanguage factors

3. Grammatical categories:

• Category of case

• Category of

• Category sort

• Category-certainty of uncertainty

• Category level of quality

• Category type and time

• Category pledge

4. The difference between the syntax in Russian and English languages

In the Russian language syntactic and morphological aspects are equal, and in English, which is typical for the analytical language, the relationship between words are expressed, mostly by word order, ie. E. Syntactic means as morphological principle plays a subordinate role. This syntax priority often creates difficulties for the translation that the translator must be able to overcome, using the grammatical transformations in translation.

18) 6.3.1. Transpositions covers all cases of restructuring, so naturally here refer transformations made on the syntactic level which result in changes in word order. They can be divided into two kinds depending on the nature of a unit undergoing restructuring, its size and syntactic functions:

· re-patterning on the level of a word-group,

· re-patterning on the level of a sentence.

Re-patterning I (on the level of a word-group or a phrase) is caused by differences in the structural patterns of correlated SL and TL word-groups and phrases. Quite often such changes are accompanied by morphological (part-of-speech) or syntactical substitutions, e.g.

Алёшка, стуча зубами, стал сказывать про Тыртова (А. Толстой)

His teeth chattering, Alyosha began explaining about Tyrtov (tr. by A. Miller)

The Russian verbal adverbial phrase is replaced by the English absolute construction (syntactical substitution) which makes a respective re-patterning obligatory.

Re-patterning II (on the level of a sentence) can be further subdivided into three sub-types:

a) changes in the word order within a sentence or a clause, e.g.