CHAPTER XI

WORLD WAR II AND THE POST-WAR YEARS

GERMAN AGGRESSION

Adolf Hitler, the leader of the German Nazi party, was becoming a demagogue. He had incredible power and influence over the German people, who were disillusioned with the status of Germany in Europe after World War I and desired a better future both for themselves and their country. He promised them prosperity in a powerful Germany. Hitler planned to retake the land Germany had lost at the end of World War I. He built up the German armed forces, which he had promised not to do. German troops invaded Austria in 1938, as Hitler believed that all German-speaking countries should be part of Germany. For this reason he also took over (контролировать) another German-speaking area, the Sudentenland, in Czechoslovakia. All of Europe was worried about German expansion. Could this be the beginning of another war?

BRITAIN DECLARES WAR

In 1939 Germany invaded Czechoslovakia and on 1 September of the same year Poland was also invaded! All of Europe was enraged (быть в ярости) and on 3 September Britain declared war on Germany. But this did not stop Hitler.

In April 1940 Germany invaded Norway, then the Netherlands, Belgium and Denmark. Soon after Germany attacked, defeated and occupied France. Britain was an ally (союзник) of France, but the British forces who were sent to France were not able to stop the German advance and had to be evacuated from Dunkirk (Дюнкерк –порт во Франции). It was a humiliating defeat (унизительное поражение) and now Britain stood alone against Germany.

Winston Churchill, a brilliant politician, an exceptional leader and a man of great courage, became Prime Minister in 1940. During that summer and autumn the German Luftwaffe attacked British airfields and then bombed London and other cities. Hitler hoped to destroy the British defences (оборонительные сооружения) by bombing them from the air and then to invade by sea. Each day between 300 to 600 Londoners were killed. This battle of the skies was known as the Battle of Britain (Битва за Англию) and lasted for nearly one year. It was the first great battle to be fought in the skies..

The entire population of Great Britain was involved in the war. All men between 19 (later 18) and 41 years of age were called up (быть призванным на военную службу) to fight. Unmarried women between 20 and 30 years of age were also called up to serve in the armed forces, but they did not take part in the fighting. Food rationing (нормирование продуктов питания) began in 1940 and continued throughout the war.

THE GREAT POWERS AT WAR

In August 1940 Italy entered the war on Germany’s side. German forces invaded the Soviet Union in June 1941, bringing Russia into the war on the side of the Allies: Britain and France.

Japan, which had an alliance with Germany, attacked the American fleet at Pearl Harbor, Hawaii, in December 1941. The United States immediately declared war on Japan and, shortly after, on Germany and Italy. The terrible events that started in Europe now involved the great powers of the world in the deadliest (самая убийственная) and costliest (самая дорогостоящая) war in history. The Japanese forces rapidly invaded Southeast Asia. More than 80,000 British and Commonwealth troops were defeated when Singapore surrendered (капитулировать) in February 1942. Many important sea battles were fought in Southeast Asia between the American and Japanese navies. In October 1944 the American navy was victorious over the Japanese at the decisive (решающая) Battle of Midway (Мидуэй – коралловые острова в Тихом океане).

In North Africa, German and Italian troops joined together and advanced into Egypt, which was controlled by the British. In 1942 the British Eighth Army, under the command of General Montgomery, defeated them at Al Alamein. The British forces then joined the American army, following their landing in Algeria. Together they invaded Italy in 1944 and took Rome after a very difficult military campaign.

Thousands of American soldiers arrived in Britain from 1942 onwards (и далее), and with the British and Commonwealth soldiers prepared for the huge seaborne invasion (вторжение с моря) of France, which was being carefully and secretly planned.

On 6 June 1944, (D-Day – день высадки, открытие второго фронта), the allied forces landed in Normandy. They fought their way across France and Belgium to Germany. The German forces were gradually being pushed back everywhere. On 15 April 1945 British troops liberated the Bergen-Belsen concentration camp, one of the many horrific death camps where the Nazis imprisoned and murdered the Jews (евреи), other minority groups and political opponents. The Holocaust attempted to exterminate (искоренять) the Jewish race in Europe and cost the lives of nearly 6 million innocent people.

The Russian Army surrounded Berlin on 24 April 1945 and six days later, in view of (ввиду, принимая во внимание) the German defeat, Hitler killed himself. The German army surrendered to the British General Montgomery on 4 May 1945. The Germans were finally defeated and the British celebrated VE Day (Victory in Europe) on 8 May 1945. The war in Europe was over, although it continued in the Far East until August 1945.

POST-WAR BRITAIN

Unlike the United States, Britain was devastated (опустошенный) by the war. The economy was exhausted, the country was heavily in debt (иметь большой долг), the task of reconstruction was huge and Britain no longer had an empire. It received several billion dollars from the United States Marshall Plan (программа восстановления Европы), which greatly helped to rebuilt Britain and the other European nations destroyed by the war. Britain’s role in the world was changing.

The situation at home was also changing. The British Welfare State (государство всеобщего благосостояния), a system of social services, was set up and by 1948 the British people had free medical care, social security payments, free education and many other benefits which were unheard of a century earlier. The Labour Government nationalized the privately run railways, iron and steel industries, coal mines, and gas and electricity industries. In 1951 the Conservatives won the elections and remained in power for the next thirteen years. The standard of living rose quickly and when Elizabeth II was crowned queen in 1952 the British optimistically talked about Britain entering a ‘New Elizabethan Age’.

Do the following exercises:

I. Read the first part of Chapter XI and for each question indicate the correct answer a, b or c.

1. When did Britain declare war on Germany?

A 1 September.

B 2 September.

C 3 September.

2. Which country did Germany not invade in April 1940?

A Norway.

B Sweden.

C Denmark.

3. During the summer and autumn of 1940 the Germans attacked

A British army camps.

B British ports.

C British airfields.

4. During the Battle of Britain, how many Londoners were killed each day?

A between 600 and 700.

B between 300 and 600.

C between 400 and 500.

5. What was the difference between the men and women in the British Army?

A the women did not have to fight in battles.

B The women were older than the men.

C The men were not married.

6. When did food rationing begin in Britain?

A 1940.

B 1939.

C 1938.

II. Read the passage below and choose the correct word a, b, c or d for each space.

(1) ….. Adolf Hitler planned to take the land Germany had (2) ….. after World War I, he invaded Austria in 1938 and Czechoslovakia and Poland in 1939. Britain declared war (3) ….. Germany.

(4) ….. could stop Hitler. In 1940 he invaded Norway, the Netherlands, Belgium, Denmark and France! The brilliant (5) ….. Winston Churchill became Prime Minister in 1940.

London and other cities were heavily (6) ….. . The United States entered the war (7) ….. the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor, Hawaii. The great (8) ….. of the world were now at war.

On D-Day the allied forces landed in Normandy and fought their way (9) ….. France to Germany. In April 1945 the Germans were (10) ….. and the war in Europe was (11) ….. Britain had been devastated (12) ….. the war.

1. A About B Again C Soon D Since

2. A gained B lost C seen D attacked

3. A on B in C to D for

4. A Everything B Something C Nothing D Anything

5. A general B politician C philosopher D banker

6. A bombed B bombs C bombing D bomb

7. A until B before C during D after

8. A cities B powers C politics D colonies

9. A by B at C across D to

10. A imprisoned B murdered C exterminated D defeated

11. A off B up C over D down

12. A at B by C to D on

III. Read three passages below and answer the following questions about paintings of World War II.

1) Adolf, the superman, swallows (глотать) gold and vomits (извергать рвотные массы) stupidity (глупость) (1932) by John Heartfield

Hitler is the subject of this photomontage John Heartfield produced for the opposition magazine Arbeiter Illustriert Zeitung, which was banned by the Nazis soon afterwards. Heartfield combined a photograph with an x-ray of Hitler’s body. The x-ray shows Hitler’s body is full of money as he is swallowing gold, this refers to the financial support he was given by his political supporters and German industry. The word ‘superman’ in the title refers ironically to the Nazis’ claim of racial superiority. The word ‘stupidity’ is used to describe his speeches. Heartfield managed to escape from the Nazis and stayed in exile (в изгнании) until the end of the war.

2) Battle of Britain: August-October 1940 (1940) by Paul Nash

In this work by Paul Nash, the open sky takes up (занимать) two thirds of the painting. He shows enemy aircraft fighting a dramatic duel. The sky is filled with the white smoke from the planes’ engines, while grey smoke pours (литься, идти) from an aircraft as it crashes into the sea.

3) Tube Shelter Perspective (1941) by Henry Moore

London and Britain’s other major cities were bombed almost non-stop. Despite the dangerous living conditions, the British did not give up hope. To escape the bombing, the people of London took shelter (укрыться) in the stations and tunnels of the Underground. The sculptor Henry Moore was asked by the Government to record these events. This drawing shows a crowd of people sleeping in the shadowy (неясный, смутный) darkness of a tunnel. The artist uses simple white shapes to give the idea of sleeping bodies. His drawings are considered some of the most authentic (подлинный) images of the suffering and hardship (невзгоды, лишения) of ordinary people in World War II.

a) Why is the word ‘superman’ used in the subtitle of Heartfield’s photomontage of Hitler?

b) Why is Hitler shown swallowing gold?

c) What does Paul Nash’s painting of the Battle of Britain show?

d) What was Henry Moore asked to do by the British government?

e) Why is Henry Moore’s work considered important?

CHAPTER XII

MOVING TOWARDS THE TWENTY-FIRST CENTURY

THE POST-WAR BOOM

In the twenty years following World War II Britain experienced an economic boom (экономический подъем). The government was committed to (идти по пути к) the Welfare State and to maintaining a high level of employment. Money was spent on building new houses, hospitals and roads. People spent their salaries on consumer goods, which also benefited (приносить пользу) British industry.

In the 1950s many people had their first telephone installed and bought their first car, record player, portable radio and television. New labour-saving devices such as the washing machine and the vacuum cleaner became common household goods. The British consumer was encouraged to buy and not to save.

Food rationing ended in 1954 and between 1956 and 1958, 800 new supermarkets opened in Great Britain. During the 1950s people from the newly independent Commonwealth countries emigrated to Britain looking for secure employment, and Britain started to become a multi-racial society.

The word teenager was first used in the 1950s to indicate a new generation of young people with buying power and new revolutionary ideas about entertainment, music and fashion. The youth culture of the 1960s and 1970s was imitated by young people all over the world. Pop groups such as the Beatles and the Rolling Stones have had an enormous influence on youth culture. Young designers like Mary Quant revolutionized fashion with the miniskirt and colourful, informal clothes!

The symbols of the new lifestyles became the symbols of Pop Art, one of the most important art movements of the second half of the twentieth century.

• The collage (коллаж – комбинация разнородных элементов) Just what is it that makes today’s homes so different, so appealing (привлекательный, притягательный)? (1956) by Richard Hamilton makes use of the items which were about to turn Great Britain into a consumer society (общество потребления). The television and vacuum cleaner are symbols of modern technology. We can see advertising logos and brand names, such as Ford on the lamp and Del Monte on the tin of ham and images taken from advertisements, such as the woman vacuuming the stairs. The two people in the foreground represents the ‘new man and woman’. The collage shows how consumers and the American lifestyle influenced Britain after the hardships of the war.

• In the surreal cartoon Yellow Submarine (1968) directed by George Dunning the psychedelic techniques, the ultra bright lights and the anarchic characters capture the atmosphere of the youth culture of the late 1960s.

• The painting Cataract (поток, потоп) 3 (1967) by Bridget Riley, which is based on a study of optical laws and the psychology of shape, has a deliberately (преднамеренно) hypnotic effect on the viewer. If you look at the wavy (волнистый) lines for long enough, they appear to move and the whole painting comes to life. The viewer’s perception becomes a source of disorientation. The geometric patterns typical of ‘Op(tical) Art’ became very popular in the 1960s and 1970s. The distinction (различие) between ‘high’ and ‘low’ culture became ambiguous (неопределенный, неясный), as often happened at the time, and the patterns were used both in painting and the fashionable clothes of the day.

ECONOMIC DECLINE (упадок)

At the beginning of the 1960s Britain was at a turning point. Cases of immoral behaviour among politicians were discovered and the public was shocked. The British were beginning to buy more from abroad than they sold, and a country that spends more than it earns goes into debt (долг). Britain’s new prosperity was very fragile (слабый, незначительный). Germany, France and Japan were economically more stable. The balance of power in the world had changed. Britain was no longer a world power or a European power. The two superpowers were the United States and the Soviet Union. What was Britain’s new role?

In 1957 Britain refused to join the European Economic Community, in spite of the economic advantages it offered: a huge internal market for buying and selling goods with minimal tariffs. A few years later Britain became aware of its growing economic problems and applied for membership of the EEC but was refused twice, in 1961 and 1967.

Britain finally succeeded in joining the EEC in 1973, but this did not improve her economic situation. What had caused this decline? The government, the management of industry and the workers have all been blamed for the economic problems. The government did not take an active role in the economy, the management of industry used old-fashioned methods for too long, and the workers with their powerful trade unions damaged the economy with strikes that paralysed the entire country for long periods of time.

THATCHER TAKES OVER (вступить в должность)

In January 1979 prices were continuing to rise and strikes were becoming more and more frequent. Over one million people were unemployed and Britain was deep in debt. The population was tired of this situation and wanted a change. In May 1979 there was a general election and the Conservative Party won under the leadership of Margaret Thatcher. Thatcher was a strong-willed individual who fought successfully against the trade unions, dismantled (ликвидировать) Welfare State (‘государство всеобщего благосостояния’) and denationalized industry. By 1987 many of Britain’s most important industries had returned to private ownership, among them British Airways, British Aerospace, the British shipbuilders and the telecommunications industry.

The ‘Thatcher years’ were full of contradictions (противоречие, конфликт). After the decline of the post-war period and the revolutionary ‘counter-culture’ (контркультура) of the 1960s and 1970s, the British rediscovered a new sense of nationalism. At the same time, a large part of the population was suffering serious economic problems. The postcard (открытка) Flag (Union Jack) (1981) by Tony Cragg gives a critical view of the situation: The British Flag, symbol of the new patriotism, is made up of blue and red plastic objects. Despite their bright colours, these objects represent the rubbish which contemporary society throws away.

Thatcher believed that the ‘cradle to the grave’(пожизненное социальное обеспечение) philosophy of the Welfare State was not working for Britain. She believed that stimulating competition, hard work and self-help were the answer to the country’s industrial, economic and social problems. Many social policies were cut and people lost their jobs. Some individuals without work became entrepreneurs (бизнесмен, предприниматель) – they went into business for themselves, and many were successful. This was a controversial (спорный, сомнительный) period of great change.

The celebrated (знаменитый) film director Ken Loach recreates (воссоздавать) the lives and living conditions of the British working classes in many of his films. In Riff-Raff (подонки общества), as in other films he made during the ‘Thatcher years’, he analyses the negative effect of the new economic policies by following a group of workers employed on a building site (стройплощадка) in London. The problems they face and the difficulty of their everyday lives is contrasted with the affluence (достаток, богатство) of the ‘nouveau riche’ (нувориш, богатый выскочка) for whom they build or renovate apartments.

On 10 October 1987 there was a stockmarket crash. This marked the beginning of a recession (кризис, регресс) which hit all of Europe but particularly Britain. By the end of the 1980s Thatcher’s charismatic leadership was being criticized, the recession was growing and unpopular new taxes were introduced. In 1990, after eleven years of being Prime Minister, she resigned and the Conservatives chose John Major as their party leader. After the Conservatives were re-elected in 1992, John Major continued Thatcher’s projects but with more respect for social policies.

A NEW ROLE FOR BRITAIN

After the Thatcher era nothing was the same again. There had been many changes, some positive but others negative. British society would never be the same again. The power of the trade unions was reduced. Privatisation proved to be successful in some sectors, and was copied through Western Europe and, with the fall of the Communist empire, in Eastern Europe as well.

Britain was emerging (вставать, возникать) as a world leader in art, music, theatre, entertainment and fashion. London, with its seven million inhabitants, was now one of the world’s most important banking centres. The opening of the Channel Tunnel in 1994 finally linked Britain to continental Europe.

In May 1997 the Labour Party with Tony Blair as its leader won the general elections after eighteen years of Conservative government. Blair, who is considered a modernist, is the youngest Prime Minister since 1812.

Some of the most symbolic and significant changes in Great Britain can be seen in London. The Tate Modern (музей современного искусства) is an outstanding example of the cultural and architectural changes taking place in Britain today. A disused electric power station has been brilliantly transformed into a spacious seven-floor museum of contemporary art. Another spectacular sign of change is the Millennium Bridge, the pedestrian (пешеходный) bridge that connects St. Paul’s Cathedral, symbol of the past, with the Tate Modern, symbol of the present and the future.

As Great Britain stepped into the twenty-first century she seems to have found a new role as a dynamic and influential (влиятельный) nation on the world scene, ready to meet the many challenges (трудность, испытание) of the future.

Do the following exercises: