Министерство образования Российской Федерации Самарский муниципальный университет Наяновой Кафедра лингвистики и межъязыковой коммуникации Самара 2008

Министерство образования Российской Федерации

Самарский муниципальный университет Наяновой

Кафедра лингвистики и межъязыковой коммуникации

English For

Post-Graduate Students

Самара 2008

Составитель: проф. Н.Н. Рогожина

Рецензент: проф. Вышкин Е. Г.

Печатается по решению кафедры

лингвистики и межъязыковой коммуникации

Самарского муниципального университета Наяновой

© Самарский муниципальный университет Наяновой, 2008

© Рогожина Н.Н.

CONTENTS

1. Part I

The Research in the Information Age……………………………………………5

State of the Objective of the Research……………………………………………8

How to Choose the Topic…………………………………………………..…...12

2. Part II

Страдательный залог…………………………………………………………..16

Инфинитив и инфинитивные обороты………………………………………19

Причастие и причастные обороты……………………………………………21

Герундий и герундиальные обороты…………………………………………25

Сослагательное наклонение…………………………………………………..29

Эмфатические конструкции………………………………………………….32

Основные трудности синтаксиса…………………………………………….34

3. Part III

Требования к кандидатскому экзамену………………………………………35

Topics…………………………………………………………………………...35

Great Britain…………………………………………………………………….43

The System of Education in Great Britain………………………………………46

Abstracts and Annotations………………………………………………………52

The Cliches Used in Abstracts and Annotations………………………………..54

Exercises………………………………………………………………………..56

Bibliography………………………………………………………………………………...60

PART I

THE RESEARCH IN THE INFORMATION AGE

You are probably already familiar with using the library for research. But because technology has been advancing so rapidly and has made it possible for writers to access sources electronically, you need to begin thinking about research in new ways. In particular, you should see research as a process which includes both print and online sources. This chapter will provide you with an overview of how to search, take notes, and start writing your research paper by integrating print and online sources.

The Research in the Information Age

Writing a research paper or report used to mean spending hours on end In a library, wading through card catalogs – electronic or paper-based – and taking notes from the books and journals available. With vast sources of information having moved outside library walls and onto the Internet and the World Wide Web, research and writing processes are hanging. Clearly, research that excludes the Internet and the Web and other online sources is not comprehensive research. Not only library col­lections, but also databases on topics across disciplines are available on the Web. Web sources on your topic should not be overlooked as you col­lect information for your research project.

Before the Web was a reality, students were limited to the sources available in their own library or to the books they might reasonably expect to get through interlibrary loan. The topics students could select for research were, as a result, limited somewhat by the physical library col­lection. If, for example, you wanted to do a research paper on the Holo­caust but discovered that your library had only a few books and journals available, you might not have chosen to stay with this topic. But with the Web an CD-ROM databases available to you, you have access to many libraries’ resources on your topic as well as to new kind of Information that have been developed and made available outside the boundaries of the library. You can access a Holocaust site such as the Holocaust Studies Center

(http://www.bxscience.edu/orgs/holocaust/home.html); or for a research paper on the Civil War, you can access digitized photographs and diaries from the Library of Congress's collection of American photographs and film strips (http://www.loc.gov).

The Web offers other new possibilities. You can quote from mailing list discussions or take notes from Web pages, or you can supplement or replace face-to-face interviews and surveys with online equivalents.

If you happen to use the Web extensively as you search for informa­tion, your research process is likely to change. In the dynamic environ­ment of the Web, research is often a dialogical process: you interact with others, and your interactions change you. A reference that you find by using a search tool such as WebCrawler (see chapter 3), a note from a col­league on e-mail, or a response to a posting on a newsgroup might cause you to reexamine your topic or to think of new angles for investigation (see chapter 7 for a discussion of e-mail and newsgroups).

The Research and the Writing Process

This chapter provides you with some suggestions for moving through the research process and offers advice for integrating library and Web search­ing throughout your research and writing processes. You will find more detailed advice on some topics in later chapters. You can also find assis­tance on writing research papers online at sites such as the following:

• Cornell Library "Library Research: A Hypertext Guide"

http://urisref.library.cornell.edu

How to prepare an annotated bibliography; a list of class-related bib­liographies; guides on how to conduct research from choosing a topic to limiting search terms to citing sources.

• University of Illinois Writer's Workshop On-Line Handbook

gopher://gopher.uiuc.edu/ll/Libraries/writers

Guide to information on bibliographic style in MLA (Modern Lan­guage Association), АРА (American Psychological Association), and Old-MLA formats (footnote style).

Establish a Topic or Research Project By Reading and Searching

Don’t begin by finding a topic or selecting a research project at random. Rather/ begin by thinking about a range of possibilities and delaying your selection of a specific topic or project until after you've done preliminary searching and reading.

Your research projects should be meaningful to you personally, whether they are assigned by teachers or self-generated. If you select topics that you want to investigate critically and subjects you have a need to explore in depth, then you are certain to benefit from the research process. If you customize and personalize assigned topics, you will enjoy your research. If you incorporate the Web into your research process, you will have the added satisfaction of developing an important information-age skill.

You can find your own topic or refine one assigned to you in many ways. You can begin reading some general sources, you can search for Web sources, you can talk with your friends face-to-face, or you can chat with people from around the world in online chat areas. In Searching Writing, Ken Macrorie says that it is much better to let a topic "find you" than to settle on a topic just because you have to write a paper (1980).

A topic is more likely to "find you" if you are not in a hurry. A great time to "surf the net for general information on you subject area is before you've settled on a specific focal point for your research. Web browsing and searching can help you generate possibilities if you relax and let your mind roam. Time is a factor, of course. If you have a project due in a few days, you don't have the luxury of a freewheeling search for ideas.

You can, however, allow topic possibilities to percolate in the back of your mind while you do preliminary reading if you do have time to spare. As you search for information and skim available sources, you will grad­ually gain a sense of what interests you and you will develop a sense of what has been said about your topic by others.

Here are some questions to guide you as you explore topic possibilities:

• Do I have a choice of topics or research areas? What are the restric­tions on my topic? What is the range of possibilities?

• Is this an Internet-intensive kind of project?

• Are there any Web areas that I might use to help me identify a topic or project? What Web areas would be particularly useful for my field of study?

• What aspects of my potential research project are most intriguing to me?

• What standard library sources should I consult?

• What CD-ROMs does my library have that I should explore?

• What are the most obvious approaches to my topic or area of inves­tigation? How can I find out?

• What am I most interested in learning about?

STATE THE OBJECTIVE OF THE RESEARCH

The need for a research project to have a clear objective cannot be over-stressed. It is the key to the success of the whole venture.

A clear objective provides the basis for the design of the project, for the selection of the most appropriate methods and for the management of the project once it has begun. The objective is also the key factor in giving shape and purpose to the final report. Without a clear objective a research project can easily start on the wrong foot, become side-tracked along the way and end with an inconclusive report. During the process the researchers face confusion, uncertainty and the horrible nagging feeling that somehow they are missing the point of it all.

Research is a process which is almost impossible to define. There is a great deal of mystique about it and a reluctance on the part of many to consider undertaking it. It can cover a wide range of studies, from simple description and investigation to the construction of sophisticated experiments.

Seldom are social research projects repeated or duplicated, so every project tends to be different, yet they make use of a fairly limited range of techniques and methods which can be applied m differing circumstances. The basic skill lies in selecting the most appropriate methods for the task in hand. It is possible to build on experience and to learn from past mistakes but each project is different and requires a fresh approach.

The other main characteristic of research projects is that they are self-contained entities having a life of their own. Once the project has begun it is very difficult to slow things down or to speed them up. It is often impossible to go back and repeat something or to try it again a different way. Once the ball starts rolling it develops a momentum of its own. A clear objective should at least ensure that the ball begins travelling in the right direction and gives the researcher a fair chance of keeping it on course.

Before the objective can be specified, it is necessary to define what the problem is, and before that can be done there must be a clear understanding of why the research is being considered.

Research is carried out for two main reasons: as a means to an end, or as an end in itself. Both are perfectly valid, but each entails a rather different approach to the definition of the problem at hand and to the formulation of objectives.

Definition of the research paper

The research paper is a typewritten paper in which you present your views and research findings on a chosen topic. Variously known as the “term paper” or the “library paper,” the research paper is usually between five and fifteen pages long, with most teachers specifying a minimum length. No matter what the paper is called, your task is essentially

The same: to read on a particular topic, evaluate information about it, and report your findings in a paper.

Format of the research paper

The research paper cannot follow a random formula but must conform to a specific format such as the one devised by the Modern Language Association (MLA), a society of language scholars, or the American Psychology Association (АРА), a society of scientific scholars. The format governs the entire paper from the placing of the title to the width of the margins, and to the notation used in acknowledging material drawn from other sources.

The format scholarly writing is simply an agreed-upon way of doing things - much like etiquette, table manners, or rules of the road. For instance, in literary articles published recently you are likely to run across passages similar to this one:

Brashear considers Tennyson to be at his best when his poetry is infused with "that tragic hour when the self fades away into darkness, fulfilling all of the poet’s despairing pessimism." (18)

This citation is in the style of "parenthetical documentation" now being used by the Modern Language Association. The author of a quotation is briefly introduced, the quotation cited, and a page reference supplied in parentheses. In the alphabetized bibliography of the article will appear this listing:

Brashear, William. The Living Will. The Hague: Mouton, 1969.

This sort of standardization is as time-saving to scholars as standardization of pipe fittings is to plumbers. To do research, or even to read articles in less about it, you must become familiar with the major citation styles used by scholars—all of which are covered in this book.

Reasons for the research paper

One obvious reason for writing a research paper is that the experience will familiarize you with the conventions of scholarly writing. You will learn accepted styles of documentation, the ethics of research, and a great deal about the chosen subject.

The second reason is that you will become familiar with the library through the "learn by doing" method. Even the simplest library is an intricate storehouse of information, bristling with indexes, encyclopedias, abstracts, and gazetteers. How to ferret out from this maze of sources a single piece of needed information is a skill that you learn by doing actual research. The ability to use a library is a priceless skill, because sooner or later everyone needs to find out about something: a mother needs to know-how to stop her child from biting his fingernails; a physician, how to treat a rare illness; a lawyer, how to successfully argue an unusual case. Every­one can profit from knowing how to do research.

There are other benefits. Writing the research paper is an exercise in logic, imagination, and common sense. As you chip away at the mass of data and information available on your chosen topics, you learn

• how to think

• how to organize

• how to discriminate between worthless and useful opinions

• how to summarize the gist of wordy material

• how to budget your time

• how to conceive of a research project from the start, manage it through its intermediary stages, and finally assemble the information uncovered into a useful, coherent paper.

Steps and schedule involved in writing a research paper

Generally, there are seven distinct steps requiring you to produce at least five hand-ins over a period of five weeks. With some variations, many instructors will more or less observe this schedule:

WHAT YOU MUST DO	WHAT YOU MUST PRODUCE	WHEN ITS DUE
A topic must be selected that is complex enough to be re­searched from a variety of sources, but narrow enough to be covered in ten or so pages.	Two acceptable topics, one of which will be approved by the in­structor.	At the end of the first week. Date due
Exploratory scanning and in-depth read­ing must be done on the approved topic.	The bibliography of all titles to he used in the paper.	At the end of the second week. Date due
The information gathered must be recorded (usually on note cards) and assembled into a coherent sequence.	A note cards, a thesis statement and an outline.
A thesis statement must be drafted, setting forth the major idea of your paper.			At the end of the third week. Date due
The paper must be outlined in its major stages.
The paper must be written in rough draft and the thesis argued, proved, or supported with the information uncovered from the sources. Borrowed ideas, data and opinions must be acknowl­edged.	A rough draft of the paper.	At the end of the fourth week. Date due
7. A bibliography must be prepared, listing all sources used in the paper. The final paper must be written.	The final paper, complete with bibliography.	At the end of the fifth week. Date due

The report paper and the thesis paper

The two kinds of papers usually assigned in colleges are the report paper and the thesis paper. The report paper summarizes and reports your findings on a particular subject. You neither judge nor evaluate the findings, but merely catalog them in a sensible sequence. For instance, a paper that listed the opinions of statesmen during the debate over the Panama Canal treaty would be a report paper. Likewise, a paper that chronologi­cally narrated the final days of Hitler would also be a report paper.

Unlike the report paper, the thesis paper takes a definite stand on an issue. A thesis is a proposition or point of view that you are willing to argue against or defend. A paper that argues for the legalization of mari­juana would therefore be a thesis paper. So would a paper that attempts to prove that Hitler's political philosophy was influenced by the writings of the philosopher Nietzsche. Here are two more examples of topics as they might conceivably be treated in report papers and thesis papers:

Report paper: A summary of the theories of hypnosis.

Thesis paper: Hypnosis is simply another form of Pavlovian conditioning.

Report paper: The steps involved in passage of federal legislation.

Thesis paper: Lobbyists wield a disproportionate influence on federal

legislation.­

Teachers are more likely to assign a thesis paper than a report paper, for obvious reasons. Writing the thesis paper requires you to exercise judgment, evaluate evidence, and construct a logical argument, whereas writing the report paper does not.

HOW TO CHOOSE A TOPIC

Ideally, you should choose a topic that interests you, that is complex enough to generate several research sources, and that will neither bore nor stultify your reader. We offer the following advice:

• Pick a topic that you're curious about, or that you're either an expert on or are genuinely interested in. For example, if you have always been intrigued by the character of Rasputin, the "mad monk" of Russia, you can learn more about him by using him as the topic of your paper. Similarly, an interest in the career of Elvis Presley might lead to a paper analyzing and evaluating his music.

• If you are utterly at a loss for a topic, have positively no interest in anything at all, and cannot for the life of you imagine what you could write ten whole pages on, then go to the library and browse. Pore over books, magazines, and card catalogs. An encyclopedia can be a veritable supermarket of possible topics. Browse through its entries until you find an appealing subject. Check the two-volume Library of Congress Subject Headings (LCSH) for some heading that might appeal to you. Even a general idea can be whittled down to a specific topic (see Section 2c). But you must first arrive at the general idea.

• Take your time as you search for a topic. Don't latch onto the first workable idea that pops into your head. Mull it over. Ask yourself whether you'd really enjoy spending five weeks on that topic. If you have any qualms, keep browsing until you get an idea that really excites you. All of us are or can be excited about something (thankfully, not the same thing). So whatever you do, don't make the mistake of choos­ing "any old" topic merely for the sake of getting on with it. Choose carelessly now and you'll pay dearly later. But choose carefully and you'll be rewarded with the age-old excitement of research.

Topics to avoid

Some topics present unusual difficulties; others are simply a waste of time. Here is a summary of topics to avoid:

Topics that are too big

The research paper, though it may be the longest writing assignment you will receive during the semester, is still scarcely longer than a short magazine article. Obviously, you can neither review the evolution of man nor completely fathom the mysteries of creation in ten pages. Don't even try. Regrettably, we cannot give you a good rule of thumb for avoiding impossibly broad topics. Use your common sense. Check the card catalog. If you find that numerous books have been written about your topic, then it is probably too big. The signs that you may have bitten off more than you can chew usually come only after you're already deeply mired in the research. Reference sources that multiply like flies; a bibliography that grows like a cancer; opinions, data, and information that come pouring in from hundreds of sources—these signs all indicate a topic that is too big. The solution is to narrow the topic without darting to the sanctuary of the trivial. Here are some examples of hopelessly big topics: "The Influence of Greek Mythology on Poetry"; "The Rise and Fall of Chinese Dynasties"; "The Framing of the U.S. Constitution."

Topics that can be traced to a single source

Research papers must be documented with a variety of opinions drawn from different authorities and sources. One reason for assigning the research paper in the first place is to expose students to the opinions of different authorities, to a variety of books and articles, and to other reference sources. Consequently, if the topic is so skimpy that all data on it can be culled from a single source, the purpose of the paper is defeated. Choose only topics that are broad enough to be researched from multiple sources.

Biographies are numbered among those topics that must be chosen with care lest they lead to a one-source paper. If you choose to write about a person, use an approach that allows the use of a variety of sources. You might focus on his or her contributions, motivation, or development. For instance, if you were to write about James Monroe you might narrow your focus to an evaluation of the Monroe Doctrine, which would require re­search of multiple sources. Avoid becoming so charmed by an) single account of the person's life that you end up merely parroting that source.

Topics that are too technical

A student may have an astonishing expertise in one technical area, and may be tempted to display this dazzling knowledge in a research paper. Resist the temptation. Technical topics often require a technical jargon that the teacher might not understand and might even dismiss as an elaborate "snow job." The skills that a research paper should instill in you are better displayed in a paper on a general topic. Stick to some area broad enough to be understood by any decently educated reader. The following are examples of overly technical topics: "The Use of Geometry in the Perspective of Paolo Uccelo "; "Heisenberg's Principle of Indeterminacy as It applies to Subparticle Research"; Utilitarianism versus Positivism in Legal Rights Cases Involving Minorities."

Topics that are too trivial

Obviously, your own common sense and judgment must steer you away from such topics, but here are some that teachers would reject as too trivial: "The Use of Orthopedic Braces for Dachshunds Prone to Back­aches"; "The Cult of Van Fainting in America"; "The History of the Tennis Ball"; "How to Get Dates When You're Divorced."

Narrowing the topic

Monster-sized topics are easy enough to think of, probably because big issues such as feminism, civil rights, and human aggression are constantly bandied about in the press and in casual talk. But it is a serious mistake to try to corral one of these monsters in a ten-page paper. First, it is difficult to make sense out of the millions of words in the library on such issues. Deluged with innumerable sources, most of which you simply haven't got the time to go through, you will end up choosing a few random sources out of hundreds, with the attendant risk of making a bad, unrepresentative choice. Second, apart from being more difficult to research, the big topic is also more difficult to write about: one never knows quite where to begin, and one never knows how to end without seeming silly. Third, omissions and oversights are nowhere more crudely obvious than in a small paper on a big topic.

The first step, then, once a general subject is found, is to narrow it down to a suitably small topic. There is no easy or set way of doing this. You must simply be guided by the available sources and information: again, common sense must come into play. No python knows the exact dimensions of its mouth, but any python instinctively knows that it cannot swallow an elephant. Experiment with your topic: pursue one train of thought and see where it leads, and whether or not it yields an arguable thesis. Pare down and whittle away until you've got something manageable. Bear in mind that ten pages amount to a very modest length—some books have longer prefaces. Here are a few examples of the narrowing that you'll have to do:

GENERAL SUBJECT	FIRST NARROWING	FURTHER NARROWING
Mythology	Beowulf	Courtesy codes in Beowulf
Migrant workers	California migrant workers	Major California labor laws and their impact on Mexican migrant workers
Theatre	Theatre of the Absurd	Theatre-of-the-Absurd elements in Who's Afraid of Virginia Woolf?
Jack Kennedy	Jack Kennedy's cabinet	The contribution of Averell Harriman as U.S. Ambassador to Russia
Russia	The Bolshevik Revolution of 1917	The role of Grigory Efimovich Rasputin in pre-revolutiouarv Russia
China	Chinese agriculture	The effect on China of Chinese agricultural policies during the past ten years
Indians	Famous Indian lighters	Major Rogers' Rangers during the Indian wars
Nature's carnivores	Parasites	The ichneumon wasp and its parasitic hosts
Educational psychology	Psychological testing in schools	The Thematic Apperception Test (TAT) and its present-day adaptations
Banking	Restrictions on banking powers	The role of the Federal Reserve in credit management

The first attempt at narrowing a subject is usually easier than the second, which must yield a specific topic. Use trial and error until you've got a topic you're comfortable with. Further narrowing, if necessary, will sug­gest itself once you're into the actual research. Note that whatever subject you choose must be approved by your instructor. So before you become too involved in narrowing the subject, be sure that in its basic outline your teacher approves of it.

If you have trouble coming up with a particular topic, chances are you might be tempted to try your hand at a standby such as the legalization of drugs, the right to have an abortion, the ethics of euthanasia, the effects of obscenity laws, the existence of UFOs, or the morality of capital punish­ment. The trouble with these familiar and recurring topics is that instruc­tors typically are weary of them. Moreover, it is hard to have an original opinion on topics that have been so thoroughly and repeatedly thrashed out in public debate. If you wish to try writing about something different but have no idea what, here is a list of new topics, organized by academic discipline, worth investigating.

PART II

Cтрадательный залог основные способы перевода страдательного залога

Если сказуемое выражено глаголом в страдательном залоге, то подлежащее не выполняет действие, а подвергается действию, выраженному этим глаголом. Ср.:

Действительный залог Страдательный залог

They asked about it. They were asked about it.

Они спросили об этом. Их спросили об этом.

(Они были спрошены об этом).

Формы страдательного залога

Present Past Future

Indefinite The paper is written. The paper was written. The paper will be

written

Continuous The paper is being The paper was being ---------

written. written.

Perfect The paper has been The paper had been The paper will

have been written. written. written.

На русский язык страдательную конструкцию можно передать следующими способами:

1. Формой страдательного залога данного глагола в соответствующем времени, лице и числе:

The paper was written last year.

Статья была написана в прошлом году.

2. Глаголом с окончанием –ся, -сь в соответствующем времени, лице и числе:

The excavations were made on the left side of the hill.

Раскопки производились на левой стороне холма.

3. Неопределённо-личной формой глагола действительного залога в соответствующем времени:

The excavations were made with great care.

Раскопки производились с большой осторожностью.

4. Личной формой глагола в действительном залоге (такой перевод возможен только в том случае, если указано лицо, производящее действие, т. е. если в предложении есть дополнение с предлогом by):

These papers were written by one and the same author.

Эти работы писал один и тот же автор.

Примечание. В некоторых случаях сочетание глагола to be с причастием II не является формой страдательного залога, и представляет собой именное сказуемое, которое в отличие от форм страдательного залога выражает состояние, а не действие. Ср.:

Простое глагольное сказуемое Составное именное сказуемое

(действие) (состояние)

This door is (usually) locked by the porter. This door is locked.

Эту дверь (обычно) запирает швейцар. Эта дверь заперта.

Упражнение №1

Переведите:

1. In Eire, the Irish Free State, Irish has been made the official language and is spoken by about three million people, practically all of whom also speak English.

2. Few references to other works have been given in the body of the text, although the author wishes to acknowledge his indebtedness to all the works listed in general bibliography and the chapter bibliographies to wish the student is referred for anything beyond the outline here offered.

3. It is recognized that equivalence in both meaning and style cannot always be retained. When, therefore, one must be abandoned for the sake of the other, the meaning must have priority over the stylistic forms.

4. The bibliographies at the close of each chapter have again been brought up to date, though they have at the same time also been somewhat simplified.

5. The formation of a common language is assisted by intercourse of any kind, so especially by military service.

6. The Stone Age Section has been given the largest space, especially now that a special exhibition of the new acquisitions has been arranged.

7. He began his writing in the old style, and though he could not, as an educated man brought in close contact with the younger poets, be unaffected by them, he was by no means a consistent adherent of the school.

8. The opportunity has been taken here to publish a revised edition covering a much wider and more representative selection of London’s libraries.

9. Meanwhile, in 1704, the Kamchatkan tradesman Vasilii Kolesov had been ordered by the authorities in Yakutsk to explore the limits of Kamchatka and to investigate whether there existed islands and if so to whom they belonged.

10. Long after Sanscrit ceased to be spoken as anyone’s native language, it remained (as classical Latin remained in Europe) the artificial medium for all writing on learned topics.

11. These two individuals, the speaker and the hearer, and their relations to one another should never be lost sight of, if we want to understand the nature of language, and the part of language which is dealt with in grammar.

12. The whole question of Middle English dialects is now being subjected to rigorous scrutiny by A. McIntosh (Edinburgh) and some others.

13. Thinking arises only out of sense-perception and must be preceded by it.

14. The Reference books in the Reading Room are kept under review and, wherever necessary, new books are substituted for those which are superseded.

15. Much of the older grammatical equipment of particles and terminations is now dispensed with (in Modern Japanese).

16. Slaves (in America) were chattels; they were denied even the sensibilities of a brute animal. Two hundred years of legislation had sanctified and sanctioned Negro Slaves a property. And property they indeed were. Like domestic animals they were referred to as “stock”.

17. Nevertheless, it may be affirmed that there were repeated glaciations in Northern Germany, and it may safely be asserted that the maximum glaciation there coincided with the Middle Glacial Stage in the Alpine region.

18. The general plan, however, of this series has not been lost sight of. Important writers have been treated at comparatively greater length, to the neglect of many lesser notabilities and an attempt has been made, in so far as the state of our knowledge permits, to follow the literature and to trace the causes which determined its character at particular periods.

19. In 1837 one ship made its way nearly to Yedo in the effort to return a few castaways. She was fired upon and returned without having landed her charges.

20. American artists from Brockden Brown and Poe to Henry James and Eliot have suffered this fate. They have been thought of as expatriots and they have been denied a place in the literary history of the nation because they criticized their civilization.