II. In unaccented syllables

[э] in the majority of unaccented syllables: contain [kan’tein], factor [’faekta].

III. Digraphs with the letter <o>

oa = [эа]: boat [’baut]; oa = [o:] before <r>: oar [o:]; oi, oy = [oi]: boil [’boil], boy [’boi]; oo = [u: ]; oo = [иэ] before <r>: poor ['риэ]; ou, ow = [au]: round [‘raund]; ou, ow = [аиэ] before <r>: our ['аиэ]; ou = [o:] before ght: thought [’9o:t]; ou = [э] in unaccented final -our(s), -ous: labour [leiba], various [Vearias]; ow = [эй] in final unaccented position and before -ed,-er(s),-est, -ing(s), -s un­der the same condition: window [Vindau], borrowing [’borauirj].

<U>

I. In accented syllables

1. [ju:] a) in final position and before a vowel: gnu [’nju:], dual­ism [’djuralizm]; b) before a consonant /except <r>, <w>, <x>/ or a consonant/except <1>, <r>, <w>, <x>/ + <1>, <r> if it is directly followed by a vowel: mute [’mju:t], student [’stjurdant].

2. [u:] after ch, j, 1, rh, sh, y: junior [Узи:тэ] yule [’ju:l], ruin [’ru:in].

3. [jua] before r + a vowel: pure [’pjua].

4. [иэ] between ch, j, 1, r, rh, sh, у and <r> + a vowel: jury [’d3uari], plural ['р1иэгэ1].

5. [э:] where e = [э:]: fur [’fa:], burr [Ъэ:], occurring [a'karrirj].

6. [л] before consonants everywhere else: cut [’kAt], bubble [ЪлЫ]. II. In unaccented syllables

1. [ju] before a vowel or before a consonant + a vowel: continu­ous [k9n’tinju9s].

2. [u] a) after ch, j, 1, r, rh, sh, у where <u> = [ju]: February [’februari]; b) in -ful(s): handful [’hsendful].

3. [a] before a group of consonants or before a final consonant: illustrate [’ilastreit], octopus ['oktapas], and in<ur>before a vowel: figure [’figa].

<Y>

In accented and unaccented position

у = [ai, aia, a:, i, a] where i = [ai, aia, a:, i, a]: sky [’skai], type [’taip], myrtle [’ma:tl], nymph [’nimf], satyr [’sseta], tyrant [’taiarant]. у = [j] in initial position before a vowel: yard [’ja:d].

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CONSONANTS

<B>

1. [b] everywhere including <bb>: bit [’bit], rubber [’rлbэ].

2. mute in final -mb(s) and in -mb + -ed: lamb [’lsem], bombed [’bomd].

<C>

1. [k] everywhere including <cc>: cat [’kset], account [a’kaunt].

1. before <ae>, <e>, <i>, <y>, <c> = [s] and <cc> = [ks]: Caesar [’si:za], cylinder [’silinda], cent [’sent], cider [’saida], accent [’seksent], accident [’aeksidant].

Digraphs and trigraphs with the letter <c>

ch = [tf]: church [’Ja:еf]; ch = [k] before a consonant and after <s>: chronicle [’kronikl], school [’sku:l]; ci = [f] within a word before an unaccented vowel /not mute<e>/: social [’saujb1]; ck = [k]: back [’bsek]; cqu = [kw]: acquire [a‘kwaia].

<D>

1. [d] everywhere including <dd>: deed [’di:d], rudder [’rлdэ].

2. [t] in -ed after c, ch, f, k, p, ph, sh, ss, x: faced [’feist], hoped [’haupt], photographed [’fautagra:ft].

3. dg = [d3] before <e>, <i>, <y>: edge [’edз].

<F>

[f] everywhere including <ff>: fifty [’fifti], roof [’ru:f], fluffy [’f lлfi].

<G>

1. [g] everywhere including gg : ago [a’gau], foggy [’fogi].

1. [d3] before <e>, <i>, <y>: gem [’dзem], giant [’d3aiant], gym­nastics [d3im’nsestiks] / whereas <gg> = [g] even before these vowels: bigger [>biga]/.

Digraphs and trigraphs with the letter <g>

In gn- <g>is mute at the beginning of a word: gnat [’nset]; geon, gion = [d3an] in unaccented position: region [’ri:dзэn]; geous, gious = [d33s] in unaccented position; outrageous [aut’reid

84

33s]; gh = [g] in initial position: gherkin [’garkin]; gh is mute within a word and in final position: eight [’eit], thought [9o:t], high [’hai]; gu = [g] in initial position before a vowel: guard [’ga:d], guest [’gest].

<H>

1. [h] before a vowel: how [’hau].

2. mute in final position, before a consonant and after <x>: bah [’ba:], Fahrenheit [’farranhait], exhaust [ig’zo:st].

<J> [d3] everywhere: joy [d3oi].

<K>

1. [k] everywhere including < kk>: kind [’kaind].

Digraphs with the letter <k>

In initial kn- <k> is mute: knee [’ni:], knight [’nait]; kh = [k]: khan [’ka:n].

<L>

1. [1] everywhere including <11>: like [’laik], roller [’raula].

2. mute in alk, oik: talk [’to:k], yolk [’jauk].

<M> [m] everywhere including <mm>: may [’mei], hammer [’hsema].

<N>

1. [n] everywhere including <nn>: noon [’nu:n], dinner [’dina].

2. mute in final -mn(s) and mn + -ed autumn ['o:tam], con­demned [kan’demd].

3. [n] before <k>, <q>, <x> and before <c>= [k]: ink [’ink], lynx [‘links].

Digraphs and trigraphs with the letter<n>

^пё = [щУ- single [’sirjgl]; ng = [n] in final position, in final -ng(s), -ngth and before -ed: long ['Ion], strength [’strerjG], belonged [bi’lond]; nge (s) = [nd3(iz)] in final position: hinges [’hind3iz]; ngu = [ngw] before a vowel: language [’lsengwid3]; ngue(s) = [n(z)] in final position: tongue (ngues) [’tArj,-rjz].

85

<P>

1. [p] everywhere including <pp>: pipe [’paip].

2. ph = [f]: phosphorous [’fosfaras].

<Q>

is used, as a rule, only in digraph <qu>;

1. [kw]: quick [’kwik].

2. [k] before mute<e>: mosque [’mask].

<R>

1. [r] including <rr> only before a vowel /except a mute one / : red [’red], cry [’krai], barren [’bжrэn].

2. mute in final position, before a consonant and before mute <e>: car [’ka:], more [’mo:], cares [’keaz].

3. [э] between a consonant and mute <e>: acre [’eika].

4. rh, rrh = [r] where <r>, <rr> = [r]: rhyme [’raim]; <rrh> is mute where <r> and <rr> are mute: catarrh [ka’ta:].

<S>

1. [s] everywhere including <ss>: sense [’sens], actress [’sektris].

2. [z] a) between a vowel and final -e, -ed, -er(s) or -ing(s): rise [’raiz], houses [’hauziz]; b) in final -sm(s): sophism [’sofizm]; c) in grammatical inflexions of adjectives, nouns and verbs in the majority of cases: ages [’eid3iz], teaches [’ti:tfiz]. In these cases <s> = [s] usually only after <c>, <ch> = [k], <f>, <k>, <kh>, <que>, <t>, <p>, <ph>, <th>: cynics [’siniks], wife’s [’waifs], myths [’miGs].

Digraphs and trigraphs with the letter <s>

sc = [s] before <e>, <i>, <y>: scene [’si:n]; sh = [Г]: short [fo:t]: sion = [зэn] in unaccented position after a vowel: vision [’visan]; sion = [fan] in unaccented position after a consonant: tension [’tenjan]; ssion = [fan] in unaccented position: passion [paefan]; stl = [sl]: whistle [’wisl]; sur = [зэ(r)] in unaccented position between vowels: measure [’meза]; sur = [э(r)] in unaccented position between a consonant and a vowel: censure [’senja]; ssur = [э(r)] in unaccented position after a vowel: pressure [’preja].

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<т>

1. [t] everywhere including <tt>: treat [’tri:t], better [’beta].

2. mute in <stl>: whistle [Visl]. Digraphs and trigraphs with the letter <t>

tch = [tf]: catch [’ksetf]; th = [9]: thin [6in]; th = [6] be­tween a vowel and final -e, -ed, -er(r), -es or -ing(s): seethe [’si:6]. smoothing [’smurdirj]; ti = [Г] within a word before an unaccented vowel /but not after <s> and not before mute<e>/: partial [’pa: Jl]; tur = [tjb] or [tju] in unaccented position be­fore a vowel: feature [’fi:tja] centure [’sentjbri].

<V> [v] everywhere including <vv>: vivid [’vivid].

<W>

1. [w]: want [’wont].

2. mute in initial wr-: write [’rait].

3. wh = [w]: when [’wen].

<X>

1. [ks]:box [’boks].

2. [gz] before an accented vowel and mute <h> + an accented vowel: exert [ig’za:t], exhaust [ig’zo:st].

3. [z] in initial position: Xerox [’zi:raks]. Digraphs and trigraphs with the letter <x>

xc = [ks] before <e>, <i>, <y>: except [ik’sept]; xion = [kjan] in unaccented position: complexion [kam’plekjan]; xious = [k Jas] in unaccented position: anxious [aenkjas]

<Z> [z] everywhere including<zz>: zone [’zaun], blizzard [’blizad].

NOTES

1. P. 7: see Indroduction, p. 5.

2. P. 8: How it came to pass, why is it that there is no simple correspondence between sounds ans letters, see Chapter 3 of the present manual.

3. Р. 9: see Abercrombie D. A Phonetician’s View of Verse Struc­ture. In: Studies in Phonetics and Linguistics. — Oxford Uni­versity Press, 1965. — Р. 24—25.

4. P. 10: see Jacobson R., Halle M. The Fundamentals of Lan­guage. — Mouton: the Hague-Paris, 1956.

5. P. 10: see Sweet H. The Indispensable Foundation. — Lon­don, 1971.

6. Р. 11: The description of the English articulation basis is bor­rowed from Магидова И.М. Введение в английскую фи­лологию. — М.: МГУ, 1985. — С. 19—20.

7. Р. 11: special research in this field has been carried out at the English department of Moscow University by Павлова H.T. Прагмалингвистика произносительной нормы в со­ставе научной речи филолога-англиста: автореф. канд. дисс. — М.: МГУ, 1988; Медведева Н.Ф. Речевой голос как функциональная основа речевого уклада английс­кого языка: Автореф. канд. дисс. — М.: МГУ, 1988.

8. Р. 11: see SweetH. A Primer of Phonetics. — Oxford, 1906. — P. 5 5 .

9. P. 12: см. Кулешов B. B., Мишин А. Б. Сопоставление ар­тикуляционных баз английского и русского языков и фо­нетическая интерференция. — М.: МГУ. — 1987. — С. 77.

10. Р. 12: см. Ахманова О.С. Словарь лингвистических тер­минов. — М.: 1966. — С. 110.

88

11. Р. 13: At present a comprehensive study of this problem is being carried out by assistant professor O.S. Mindrul (English department, Moscow University).

12. P. 14: см. Медведева Н.Ф. Речевой голос как функци­ональная основа речевого уклада английского языка: автореф. канд. дисс. — М.: МГУ, 1988.

13. Р. 14: see, for example, Gimson A.C. An Introduction to the Pronunciation of English. — London, 1980; Roach P. English Phonetics and Phonology, a practical course. — Cambridge University Press, 1985; Jones D. An Outline of English Pho­netics. — Cambridge: Heffer, 1960; Васильев B.A. Фонети­ка английского языка. Теоретический курс. — М., 1970; Торсуев Г.Л. Фонетика английского языка. — М., 1950; Трахтеров А.Л. Лекции по теоретическому курсу фоне­тики английского языка. — М., 1955.

14. Р. 14: см. Смирницкий А.И. Курс фонетики английского языка. — М.: МГУ, 1956.

15. Р. 15: When viewed structurally, the system of phonemes is reduced to an abstract model, as shown in Appendix 2 of the present manual.

16. P. 15: “faucal” means that the explosion is made in the fauc­es — the throat, the passage from the mouth to the pharynx.

17. P. 16: “Ударение: англ. stress, accent — Выделение те­ми или иными фонетическими средствами — усиление голоса, повышение тона / резкое изменение мелодичес­кой кривой / в сочетании с увеличением длительности, интенсивности, громкости и т.п. — одного из слогов в составе слова или целого словосочетания. Ударение как фонологическое средство накладывается на линейные (сегментные) фонемы, составляющие основную звуко­вую оболочку слова”. Ахманова О.С. Словарь лингвис­тических терминов. — М., 1966. — С. 482—483.

18. Р. 18: The description of the consonants that follows is based mainly, on Davydov M.V., Egorov G.G. English Phonol­ogy. — M.: MGU, 1971, and is supplemented by the mate­rial that was included in the course of lectures in English phonology by O.S. Akhmanova (1987—1988 academic years) at the English department, Moscow University.

89

19. P. 18: see, for example, Gimson A.C. Op. cit; Roach P. Op. cit.

20. P. 30: It is interesting to note here that in a number of Eng­lish manuals on orthography the following practical piece of advice is often given: “If you wish to avoid orthographic mistakes, read as much as you can, and try to remember the spelling of a word as a whole”.

21. P. 30: see, for example, Ellis A.J. On Early English Pronun­ciation. — 1889; Sweet H. A Primer of Phonetics. — Oxford, 1906; Bell A.M. Visible Speech: The Science of Universal Alphabetics. — London, 1867.

22. P. 30: see The Principles of the International Phonetic As­sociation. — London, 1949. For additional information about IPA see Appendix 5 of the present manual.

23. P. 31: see Gimson A.C.— Op cit. — Р. 139—140.

24. P. 31: see Chapter 5 and Appendix 9 of the present manual.

25. P. 33: see Wijk A. Regularized English. In: Alphabets for English, ed. by Haas W. — Manchester University Press, 1969. — Р. 50—88.

26. P. 34: см: Русско-английский словарь / общ. рук. А.И. Смир-ницкий. — М., 1985.

27. Р. 34: см. Ахманова О.С. Английский язык. — М.: МГУ, 1954.

28. Р. 34: movable stress, подвижное ударение — «ударение, по-зиционно не закрепленное за той или другой частью слова, т.е. такое, которое может падать на любой слог слова, на разные его морфологические элементы. E.g. ’pho tograph — phо’tography — photo’graphic». Ахманова О.С. Словарь лингвистических терминов. — М., 1966. — С. 328—329.

29. Р. 36: см. Русско-английский словарь / общ. рук. А.И. Смир-ницкий. —М., 1985. — С. 739.

30. Р. 37: The text is borrowed from the book by Маги до-ва И.М. Введение в английскую филологию. — М.: МГУ, 1985, — С. 3.

31. Р. 40: see O’Connor’s J.D. Course of English Intonation : Lesson 1.

32. Р. 40: см. Магидова И.М. Теория и практика прагма-лингвистического регистра английской речи : автореф. докт. дис. — М.: МГУ, 1989.

90

33. Р. 41: the text, originally written by A.C. Gimson, is borrowed from the above-mentioned work by I.M. Maguidova.

34. P. 42: см., например, Чаковская М.С. Текст как сообщение и воздействие. — М.: Высшая школа, 1986.

35. Р. 42: As far as the description of prosodic features is concerned, we can do no better than refer the reader to O.S.Mindrul’s book Фонетика английского языка. — M.: МГУ, 1986.

36. Р. 43: see Crystal D., Quirk R. Systems of Prosodic and Para-linguistic Features. — Mouton, 1964.

37. P. 44: see Thompson D. Spelling and Punctuating. — Oxford University Press, 1984, — P. 67.

38. P. 44: see Chapter 4 (Part I) of the present manual.

39. P. 45: see Arapieva L. The Theory and Practice oi English Punctuation. — Grozny, 1985. — Р. 46—48; Mindrul O.S. Op. cit. — P. 18.

40. P. 46: see Gimson A.C. Op. cit. — Р. 275—277.

41. P. 48: the description of this punctuation mark is based on Arapieva L. Op. cit., and is supplemented by the material of the lectures given by Akhmanova O.S. at the English depart­ment, Moscow University in 1987—1988.

42. P. 48: see Chapter 1 (Part I) of the present manual.

43. P. 50: see Gimson A.C. Op. cit. — Р. 277—278.

44. P. 50: see Gimson A.C. Op. cit., Р. 277—278.

45. P. 51: As far as the discussion of the semi-colon, colon, dash, brackets, double comma and double dash is concerned, we have based it mainly on L. Arapieva (Op. cit.)

46. P. 54: see Akhmanova O.S., Idzelis R. What is the English We Use? — M.: MGU, 1978. — P. 87.

47. P. 56: see Arapieva L. Op. cit. — P. 71.

48. P. 61: When we concern ourselves with the suprasyntactic analysis, tonetic transcription may turn out to be acceptable, but only provided the person who attempts to transcribe this or that text tonetically has taken the trouble to acquaint him/ herself with the state of the art.

49. P. 62: см. Тезисы III Конгресса фонетистов в Токио. 1976.

50. р. 67: see Hill A. Introduction to Linguistic Structures (from sound to sentence in English). — New York, 1958. — Р. 62—66.

91

51. P. 72: Different approaches to this problem can be found in the works by Avanesov R.I., de Saussure F., Witteridge D. and others.

52. P. 73: см. Дечева С.В. Слогоделение в языке и речи: автореф. канд. дисс. — М.: МГУ, 1983. — С. 13—14.

53. Р. 74: see Chapter 2 (part I) of the present manual.

54. P. 74: the examples are borrowed from Gimson A.C. Op. cit. — Р. 226—230.

55. P. 78: see Akhmanova O.S. Phonology, Morphonology, Mor-pho logy. — Mouton: the Hague-Paris, 1971; Jacobson R., Halle M. The Fundamentals of Language. — Mouton: the Hague-Paris, 1956.

56. P. 80: The text of the Rules of Reading is based on the one adduced in Smirnitsky’s Russian-English Dictionary. — M., 1985. — Р. 731—738.