Masculinity/femininity

Hofstede uses the words masculinity and femininity to refer to the degree to which masculine or feminine traits are valued and revealed. His rationale, one that is supported across several academic disciplines, is that many masculine and feminine behaviors are learned and mediated by cultural norms and traditions. Adler and Gunderson feel that the terms masculinity and femininity do not adequately convey the full meaning behind this dimension and choose to use the terms “career success” and “quality of life” [55].

Masculinity

Masculinity is the extent to which the dominant values in a society are male oriented. A masculine oriented culture can be defined as, “A society is called masculine when emotional gender roles are clearly distinct: men are supposed to be assertive, tough, and focused on material success, whereas women are supposed to be more modest, tender, and concerned with the quality of life” [56].

Adler and Gunderson report that masculine, or career success, oriented cultures have highly defined gender roles and promote achievement in the workplace. “Assertiveness and the acquisition of money and things (materialism)” [57] are emphasized and often take precedence over interpersonal relationships.

The United States offers an example of the influence of strong gender roles in a masculine-based culture (see Table 4 for rankings). Despite the high level of economic development and stress on gender equality, in 2011 women were elected to only 88 (16.4 percent) of the 535 combined seats available in the U.S. Senate and the House of Representatives, which demonstrates a disproportionately low level of female political empowerment [58].

Femininity

Cultures that value femininity as a trait stress nurturing behaviors. “A society is called feminine when emotional gender roles overlap: Both men and women are supposed to be modest, tender, and concerned with the quality of life.”59 A feminine worldview maintains that men need not be assertive and that they can assume nurturing roles.

It also promotes sexual equality and holds that people and the environment are important. Interdependence and androgynous behavior are the ideal, and people sympathize with the less fortunate. In contrast to the masculine culture reflected by the number of women in the U.S. Congress, in Norway, which had the second highest ranking in the femininity category (see Table 6.4), women occupied 67 (40 percent) of the 169 Parliament seats following the 2009 election, suggesting a high level of female political empowerment [60].

The impact of masculinity/femininity on a culture can also be observed in the “gender gap” survey. To determine the gender gap in countries, The World Economic Forum conducts a yearly survey to measure these four categories:

(1) economic participation and opportunity;

(2) educational attainment;

(3) health and survival; and

(4) political empowerment.

In the political empowerment category of the 2010 report (which assessed 134 nations), Iceland, Norway, Finland, and Sweden were ranked as the top four; the United States was 40, Italy 54, Mexico 61, and Japan 101.61 These rankings generally parallel Hofstede’s findings.

TABLE 4. Masculinity Values for Fifty Countries and Three Regions

RANK COUNTRY RANK COUNTRY RANK COUNTRY

1 Japan 18/19 Hong Kong 37/38 Spain

2/3 Austria 20/21 Argentina 37/38 Peru

2/3 Venezuela 20/21 India 39 East Africa

4/5 Italy 22 Belgium 40 El Salvador

4/5 Switzerland 23 Arab countries 41 South Korea

6 Mexico 24 Canada 42 Uruguay

7/8 Ireland 25/26 Malaysia 43 Guatemala

7/8 Jamaica 25/26 Pakistan 44 Thailand

9/10 Great Britain 27 Brazil 45 Portugal

9/10 Germany 28 Singapore 46 Chile

11/12 Philippines 29 Israel 47 Finland

11/12 Colombia 30/31 Indonesia 48/49 Yugoslavia

13/14 South Africa 30/31 West Africa 48/49 Costa Rica

13/14 Ecuador 32/33 Turkey 50 Denmark

15 United States 32/33 Taiwan 51 Netherlands

16 Australia 34 Panama 52 Norway

17 New Zealand 35/36 Iran 53 Sweden

18/19 Greece 35/36 France

The lower the number, the more the country can be classified as one that favors masculine traits; a

higher score denotes a country that prefers feminine traits. Source: Adapted from G. Hofstede,

Culture’s Consequences: Comparing Values, Behaviors, Institutions and Organizations Across Nations,

2nd ed. (Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications, 2001).