Hofstede’s value dimensions

Developed by Hofstede [34], the first classification identifies six value dimensions (individualism/collectivism, uncertainty avoidance, power distance, masculinity/femininity, long-term/short-term orientation, and indulgence/restraint) that are influenced and modified by culture. Hofstede’s research was one of the earliest attempts to use statistical data to examine cultural values. He surveyed more than one hundred thousand IBM employees from 50 countries and three geographical regions. After careful analysis, each country and region was assigned a rank of 1 through 50 in four identified value dimensions (individualism/collectivism, uncertainty avoidance, power distance, masculinity/femininity).

Subsequent research involving participants from 23 nations revealed a fifth dimension (long-term/short-term orientation) and these countries were ordered 1 through 23. Recent work with World Values Survey data from 93 nations has disclosed the indulgence/restraint dimension. The country rankings provided by this research not only offer a clear picture of what was valued in each culture, but also help you see comparisons across cultures. However, it is important to keep in mind that Hofstede’s work measured cultural dimensions at a national rather than individual level [35], which means that his value dimensions characterize the dominant culture in that society. Within every culture you will find individuals all along a particular value continuum. For example, in the United States, some members of the dominant culture possess strong collective tendencies. Conversely, in a group-oriented culture such as South Korea, you can find individuals that subscribe to, and assert, individuality. Therefore, in any intercultural encounter, you must be mindful that the other person or persons may not adhere to the norm for their culture.

Individualism/collectivism

Based on numerous scholarly studies, individualism versus collectivism (individual orientation versus group orientation) is thought of “as one of the basic pattern variables that determine human action” [36]. The two values produce variations in family structures, how classroom activities are conducted, the way organizations manage workgroups, and even how the individual conducts social relations.

The individualism/collectivism continuum can be defined in the following manner: “Collectivistic cultures emphasize community, collaboration, shared interest, harmony, tradition, the public good, and maintaining face. Individualistic cultures emphasize personal rights and responsibilities, privacy, voicing one’s own opinion, freedom, innovation, and self-expression” [37]. This synopsis should prepare you for a more in depth study of the two dimensions.

Individualism

First, the individual is the single most important unit in any social setting. Second, independence rather than interdependence is stressed. Third, individual achievement is rewarded. Lastly, the uniqueness of each individual is of paramount value [38]. A person’s rights and privacy prevail over group considerations in an individualistic culture [39]. Individualists are likely to belong to many groups but retain only weak ties, changing membership when desired.

Hofstede’s findings (see Table 1) indicate that Western democracies tend toward strong individualism. Individualism in the United States is seen in the expectation that employees will change jobs in order to advance their careers. The individual is first, and the organization and co-workers are a secondary consideration. Conversely, in Japan individuals have traditionally expected to retain affiliation with the same company throughout their working career. To change jobs would be disloyal to the company and the other employees.

TABLE 1

Individualism/Collectivism Values for Fifty Countries and Three Regions

RANK COUNTRY RANK COUNTRY RANK COUNTRY

1 United States 19 Israel 37 Hong Kong

2 Australia 20 Spain 38 Chile

3 Great Britain 21 India 39~41 Singapore

4/5 Canada 22/23 Japan 39~41 Thailand

4/5 Netherlands 22/23 Argentina 39~41 West Africa

6 New Zealand 24 Iran 42 El Salvador

7 Italy 25 Jamaica 43 South Korea

8 Belgium 26/27 Brazil 44 Taiwan

9 Denmark 26/27 Arab countries 45 Peru

10/11 Sweden 28 Turkey 46 Costa Rica

10/11 France 29 Uruguay 47/48 Pakistan

12 Ireland 30 Greece 47/48 Indonesia

13 Norway 31 Philippines 49 Colombia

14 Switzerland 32 Mexico 50 Venezuela

15 Germany 33~35 Yugoslavia 51 Panama

16 South Africa 33~35 Portugal 52 Ecuador

17 Finland 33~35 East Africa 53 Guatemala

18 Austria 36 Malaysia

The lower the number, the more the country promotes individualism; a higher number means

the country is more collective. Source: Adapted from G. Hofstede, Culture’s Consequences:

Comparing Values, Behaviors, Institutions and Organizations Across Nations, 2nd ed. (Thousand

Oaks, CA: Sage Publications, 2001).