19. The noun. The category of number.

1. The category of number is expressed by the opposition of the plural form of the noun to the singular form of the noun. The strong member of this binary opposition is the plural, its productive formal mark being the suffix -(e)s [-z, -s, -iz ] as presented in the forms dog — dogs, clock — clocks, box — boxes. The productive formal mark correlates with the absence of the number suffix in the singular form of the noun. The semantic content of the unmarked form, as has been shown above, enables the grammarians to speak of the zero-suffix of the singular in English.

The other, non-productive ways of expressing the number opposition are vowel interchange in several relict forms (man — men, woman — women, tooth — teeth, etc.), the archaic suffix -(e)n supported by phonemic interchange in a couple of other relict forms (ox — oxen, child — children, cow — kine, brother — brethren), the correlation of individual singular and plural suffixes in a limited number of borrowed nouns (formula — formulae, phenomenon — phenomena, alumnus— alumni, etc.). In some cases the plural form of the noun is homonymous with the singular form (sheep, deer, fish, etc.).

On the surface of semantic relations, the meaning of the singular will be understood as simply "one", as opposed to the meaning of the plural as "many" in the sense of "more than one". This is apparently obvious for such correlations as book — books, lake — lakes and the like.

the plural form indiscriminately presents both multiplicity of separate objects ("discrete" plural, e.g. three houses) and multiplicity of units of measure for an indivisible object ("plural of measure", e.g. three hours)

the plural form expresses a definite set of objects {eyes of the face, wheels of the vehicle, etc.), various types of the referent {wines, tees, steels), intensity of the presentation of the idea {years and years, thousands upon thousands), picturesqueness {sands, waters, snows). The extreme point of this semantic scale is marked by the lexicalisation of the plural form, i.e. by its serving as a means of rendering not specificational, but purely notional difference in meaning. Cf. colours as a "flag", attentions as "wooing", pains as "effort", quarters as "abode", etc.

20. The compound sentence.

(сложносочиненное)

Is a composite sentence derived from two or more base sentence, connected on the principle of coordination, either syndetically (с помощью союза) or asyndetically (без союза).

Pr. Blokh

Semantic relation between the Clauses in the Compound Sentence

• Copulative (=addition): and, nor, neither nor, not only…but

• Adversative (=contrast): but, while, whereas, however, only, nevertheless, still, yet

• Disjunctive (=choice): or, else, or else, either or

• Causal – consecutive причинно – следственные (= cause and consequence): for, therefore, accordingly, consequently, hence

• Resultative (=result): so, for, thus, that’s why

Example:

• Copulative: It was a nice little place and Mr. and Mrs. Willa were rather proud of it

• Adversative: The room was dark, but the street was lighter because of its lamps. It was not, unhappy not much afraid, get I wept.

• Disjunctive: He knew it to be nonsense or it would have frightened him.

• Causal – consecutive: There was something amiss Mt. Lightwood, for he was strongly grave and looked ill.

Compound sentence

Syndetically Asyndetically

Conjunctions Punctuation: , : ;

(and, but, or, nor, either…or

Neither…nor)

Adverbs (then, yet, so, thus

Consequently nevertheless,

however)