2). Changes in the system of strong and weak verbs
1) Splitting of original classes of strong Vs into subclasses:Old English New Englishrisan - ras — rison — risen rise — rose — risen
bitan- bat — biton — biten bite — bit — bitten2) Passing of some strong Vs of 1 class into another class: sprecan — spraec — spraecon — sprecen passed into another class with the forms speken — spak — speken — spoken on analogy with such Vs as stelen — stal — stelen — stolen.3) Passing of some strong verbs into the group of weak verbs & rarely vice versa: OE strong Vs climban, bacan turned into weak climb, bake. OE weak V hydan turned into strong V hide.
4) Homogenizing of forms of the weak Vs: In OE there were 3 principal forms of the weak Vs: cêpan — cêpte — cêpt (to keep) & lufian— lufode — lufod (to love)In Late ME period, with the loss of the final -e in the 2nd form, the 2nd and the 3rd form became homonymous3. Changes in grammatical categories of the V: In OE the V had 4 categories: person, number, tense & mood. In ME & NE there gradually developed 3 more gram. categories — order, voice & aspect. These gram. categories used a new gram. means for their formation - analytical forms, which developed from free word combinations of the OE Vs habban, beon/wesan + inf/participle, where the 1st element was gradually losing its lexical meaning & the 2nd - its grammatical meaning, thus tending to become notionally and grammatically inseparable.1) The category of order was the oldest, formed out of free combination habban + past participle. 2) The category of voice appeared out of the free combination of weorþan/beon) + past participle. 3) The category of aspect was formed on the basis of free combination of ben (beon) + present participle. 4) The category of tense was supplemented with a special form for the future tense. It appeared in ME out of free combination of the OE modal verbs "sculan" and "willan" + inf. 5) The category of mood in OE was represented by 3 mood forms. The subjunctive in OE didn’t show whether the events were probable or contrary to fact, but it had 2 tense forms — past and present, which in the course of history developed into 2 subjunctive moods.
6. Borrowings
1) B. from the Romance languages:
B. from French prevail in this group: diplomatic terms (attaché, etiquette); Ws belonging to the sphere of social life (ball, restaurant) economic Ws (currency, discount); art (ballet, essay); military terms (corps, marine); everyday life (blouse, menu, soup).Italian: art (scenario, profile) esp. music (finale, piano); landscape (volcano); everyday life (umbrella, macaroni)Spanish: military terms (armada, grenade); trade terms (embargo, escapade).In the majority of these Ws their foreign pronunciation is still preserved, but there are Ws that have entirely assimilated and sound like those of English origin (manage, canteen, laundry).2) B. from the Germanic languages: B. from Germanic languages are of special interest as English is a Germanic language too. Their sound form was closer to English & their assimilation progressed rapidly.
Dutch: nautical terminology (deck, freight, yacht); art (landscape, sketch).
German: scientific and cultural achievements (nickel, surplus value); military expressions (blitz, bunker, Nazi) The most peculiar feature of German influence on the English vocabulary is the creation of translation-loans on German models from native English components: English home-sickness comes from Heimweh, standpoint from Standpunkt3) B. from Russian: articles of trade & specific features of life in Russia (intelligentsia, tsar); flora & fauna (taiga, beluga); everyday life (kvass, valenki, samovar); political phenomena (decembrist, narodnic).The loan-words adopted after 1917 reflect the new social relations and political institutions in the USSR: bolshevik, Komsomol, Soviet. The new words are translation-loans: collective farm, Five-Year-Plan, wall newspaper.4) Contacts with other non-Indo-European languagesIndian: bungalow, jungle; Chinese: coolie, tea; Arabic: alcohol, chess; the language of colonizers in North America: food and agricultural phenomena: potato, tomato, chocolate, mosquito. attaché [ə'tæʃeɪ] t ['bæleɪ ['eseɪ], [kɔː], [mə'riːn] [blauz], ['menjuː] s[suːp] [sɪ'nɑːrɪəu] ['prəufaɪl] [fɪ'nɑːlɪ] pɪ'ænəu] [vɔl'keɪnəu] macaroni [ˌmæk(ə)'rəunɪ] [ɑː'mɑːdə] [grə'neɪdembargo [ɪm'bɑːgəu]canteen [kæn'tiːn] ['lɔːndrɪ] [dek], [freɪt] yacht [jɔt] ['læn(d)skeɪp] [skeʧ]['sɜːpləs] ['bʌŋkə] ['nɑːtsɪ] [ɪnˌtelɪ'ʤentsɪə][zɑː], [tsɑː]['taɪgə], [bɪ'luːgə [dɪ'sembrɪst] ['bɔlʃɪvɪk] Komsomol ['kɔmsəmɔl]['səuvɪət] ['bʌŋgələu] ['ʤʌŋgl] ['kuːlɪ] ['ælkəhɔl] [mɔs'kiːtəu]
7. The early stage of the development of AmE refers to the 17th-18th c., when the main characteristics of the lexicon were laid & the variant witnessed a gradual shift from phonetic, grammatical & stylistic norms of BrE. English-speaking settlers started to use borrowings from the languages of Native Americans (raccoon, [rə'kuːn]chocolate ['ʧɔklət] , potato [pə'teɪtəu]) & from neighbouring settlers: Dutch (pot cheese, deck, cruise[kruːz]), German (dumb [dʌm] ), French (portage ['pɔːtɪʤ], voyageur ['vɔɪɪʤə]), Spanish (cockroach ['kɔkrəuʧ], lasso [læ'suː]), African languages (gumbo ['gʌmbəu], voodoo ['vuːduː] The greater part of the vocabulary consisted of neologisms made up out of English language material (eggplant ['egplɑːnt], backwoods ['bækwudz], state’s attorney [ə'təːnɪ])
The 2nd period of AmE development dates to the 19th c., which is often called the period of the national growth. Neologisms of this period reflected new conditions of life connected with technological development (telegram, to phone, airline), socio-political status of the country (bulletin['bulɪtɪn] board, to lobby, congressman), education (junior / senior ['siːnɪə] high school). This period witnessed the beginning of Great Immigration Waves. The Germans were the 2nd nation after the Spanish who contributed to the development of the American vocabulary (delicatessen [ˌdelɪkə'tesn], kindergarten,).
The 3rd stage of the development of AmE dates back to the 20th c. We can single out the following means of lexical development: abbreviations (DOS, NBA, DJ); Clippings (gasoline-gas, champion-champ); Blends (cablegram, aeronautical); Compound words (square deal, hot dog); Conversion (showdown ['ʃəudaun], hangover ['hæŋˌəuvə]); Word-derivation: (suffixes – cafeteria, stardom, gangster, budgeteer, cosmetician; prefixes - pro-slavery, near-accident, super-criminal, semi-panic).
1. Polysemy – the ability of words to have more than 1 meaning. Most E words are polysemantic. The semantic structure of a polysemantic W is treated as a system of meanings. (“Fire”: 1- flame, 2 - an instance of destructive burning, 3 - The shooting of guns etc). Meaning 1 is predominant while meanings 2-3 are associated with special circumstances. Meaning 1 presents the centre of the semantic structure of the W. Not in every polysemantic W such a centre can be found. Some semantic structures are arranged on a different principle. (“dull” 1- uninteresting, boring, 2 - slow in understanding, stupid, 3 - not clear or bright, 4 - not loud or distinct etc.) In this W the centre of the semantic structure can’t be generalized.
The leading semantic component in the semantic structure of a W is denotative C. It expresses the conceptual content of a W. (Lonely - alone, to glance – to look). To give a fuller picture of the meaning of a W, it is necessary to include additional semantic components, which are termed connotations, or connotative C. (Lonely = DC (alone, without company) + CC (melancholic, sad)). By singling out DC & CC one can get a clear picture of what the W really means. Speaking about changes the semantic structure of the W undergoes it’s important to mention that they are mostly historical. Different kinds of changes in a nation's social life, culture, technology & arts alter the meaning of words or add new meanings to existing Ws as newly created objects, new concepts and phenomena have to be named. There are a few types of these changes:
1) The process of development of a new meaning (or a change of meaning) is termed transference. 2 types of T are distinguishable: T based on resemblance: linguistic metaphor (the neck of the bottle, the legs of the table, a branch of linguistics) & T based on contiguity: linguistic metonymy (glad meant bright, shining, the other meaning developed as the result of associations). 2) Broadening of meaning: to arrive meant "to come to shore, to land". In Modern E it has greatly widened & developed the general meaning "to come". 3) Narrowing: girl: In Mid E it had the meaning of "a small child of either sex". the word developed the meaning of "a small child of the female sex". 4) Elevation: when a lexeme develops a “+” sense. Knight meant a boy, now- a noble man.
5) Degradation: when a lexeme develops a “-“ sense. Villain meant a person working on a villa, now – a negative character.
3 Phraseological unit - the term used by Russian scholars (equal to the term «idiom» in Western studies). According to Prof. Kunin PUs are stable word-groups with partially or fully transferred meanings ("to kick the bucket") There is no unified classification of PUs, different linguists suggest different approaches. 1) The traditional principle for classifying PU is based on their original content. According to this principle, PU are classified according to their sources of origin, "source" referring to the particular sphere of human activity, of natural phenomena, etc. L. P. Smith gives groups of idioms used by sailors, fishermen, soldiers, hunters in his classification. He points out that word-groups associated with the sea and the life of seamen are especially numerous in English vocabulary. Most of them have no association with the sea or sailors. (To be in the same boat with somebody — to be in a situation in which people share the same difficulties). 2) Another type of classification based on the meaning of PU is suggested by Vinogradov. He pointed out 3 types of phraseological units: a) fusions – highly idiomatic, cannot be translated word for word into other languages, (on Shank’s mare - on foot, at sixes and sevens - in a mess); b) unities - the meaning of the whole phrase can be guessed from the meanings of its components, but it’s metaphorical (to play the first fiddle - to be a leader in smth); c) collocations – words are combined in their original meaning but their combinations are different in different languages (cash and carry - self-service shop, in a big way - in great degree) 3) The classification system of PU suggested by Prof. Kunin is based on the combined structural-semantic principle. PU are subdivided into 4 classes according to their function in communication determined by their structural-semantic characteristics: a) nominative PU - word-groups, including the ones with one meaningful word, and coordinative phrases of the type (wear and tear, well and good). also includes word-groups with a predicative structure, such as as the crow flies, and, also, predicative phrases of the type (see how the land lies, ships that pass in the night). b) nominative-communicative PU include verbal word-groups which are transformed into a sentence when the verb is used in the Passive Voice (the ice is broken); c) communicative PU are represented by proverbs, sayings (There is no smoke without fire.); d) PU which are neither nominative nor communicative include interjectional word-groups (As sure as eggs is eggs).
2.Synonyms – words of the same category of part of speech conveying the same concept, but different either in shades of meaning or in stylistic characteristics. Their function is revealing different aspects, shades and variations of the same phenomenon. According to classification established by Vinogradov there are 3 types of synonyms: 1) ideographic - words conveying the same concept, but different in the shades of meaning; 2) Stylistic - words different in stylistic characteristics; 3) Absolute – the same in all their shades of meaning and in all their stylistic characteristics.
Another approach to the classification of synonyms is based on the definition of synonyms as words differing in connotations: 1) C of degree (or intensity): To surprise-to astonish-to amaze 2) С of duration: To stare – to glare – to gaze – to peep 3) emotive C: alone – single – lonely – solitary 4) evaluative C: well-known-famous-notorious-celebrated 5) causative C: to shiver (with cold) – to shudder (with fear) 6) C of manner: to stroll-to stride-to trot-to pace-to swagger 7) С of attendant features: pretty (small delicate features) – handsome – beautiful(perfect figure) 8) stylistic C: to leave-to be off-to clear out-to beat it-to depart-to withdraw. All synonymic groups have a central word - its meaning is equal denotation common to all synonyms in the group. This word is called the dominant synonym: to produce – to create – to fabricate – to make – to manufacture. Characteristic features of the dominant synonyms: high-frequency of usage; broad combinability; broad general meaning; lack of connotation.
There are words, which people instinctively avoid because they are considered rude, impolite. Such words can be substituted by euphemisms. (toilet – powder-room, washroom, restroom, retiring-room, (public) comfort station, lady’s (room), gentlemen’s (room). E may be used due to genuine concern not to hurt someone’s feelings or to avoid the so-called social taboos.
Antonyms - words of the same category of parts of speech, which have contrasting meanings. If synonyms form whole, often numerous, groups, antonyms are usually believed to appear in pairs. There are exceptions: cold may have warm as its 2nd antonym. A polysemantic word may have several A for each of its meanings (dull - interesting, amusing, entertaining clever, bright, capable)
S & A also represent expressive means. can be used as a SD of contrast:
4. Neologisms. Eng. vocabulary is not a stable finite collection of words. New words & expressions are continuously coming into use. Such words are called neologisms. Important characteristics of N: the period of time they are used for, connotation of newness & the recognition by the speakers. (Obamania appeared in 2008 during the elections of the president Barac Obama however nowadays this word has lost the connotation of newness. It became part of the common Eng. vocabulary.) The main source of N is technological progress (Internet, TV, mobile phones). In the past it would take years for a word to become common currency; these days a word can make its way onto a dictionary in a few months. So the main impact of the Internet lies not only in the number of new words but also in the speed with which they are spread. (googleganger – a person who has the same name and is discovered by doing a search on your name using the google Internet search engine; newbie - someone new and inexperienced) The financial and economic crises – (recessionista – a person who dresses stylishly on a tight budget; choconomic – to drive to chickness through effective economic crisis). Politics – Obamania. Ecology – (precycling – buying particular products based on how recyclable and eco-friendly they are).Ways of building new vocabulary: 1) Vocabulary extension - the appearance of new lexical items; 2) semantic extension - the appearance of new meanings of existing words (mouse, virus); 3) borrowings (tsunami).In ME the most effective ways are productive ways of word-formation – when new words are made up of already available ones. Compound-words: fun-employment (word-composition) – a period of joblessness that a person uses for leisure; Affixation: cyber-terrorism, nano-industry. Conversion: text - to text; google - to google; Blending: (Frankenstein+ food) – GM food; informercial (information+commercial).
18. 1. The notion of ‘grammatical meaning’. The word combines in its semantic structure two meanings – lexical and grammatical. Lexicalmeaning is the individual meaning of the word (e.g. table). Grammatical meaning is the meaning of the whole class or a subclass. For example, the class of nouns has the grammatical meaning ofthingness. If we take a noun (table) we may say that it possesses its individual lexical meaning (it corresponds to a definite piece of furniture) and the grammatical meaning of thingness (this is the meaning of the whole class). Besides, the noun ‘table’ has the grammatical meaning of a subclass –countableness. Any verb combines its individual lexical meaning with the grammatical meaning of verbiality – the ability to denote actions or states. An adjective combines its individual lexical meaning with the grammatical meaning of the whole class of adjectives – qualitativeness – the ability to denote qualities. Adverbs possess the grammatical meaning of adverbiality – the ability to denote quality of qualities. There are some classes of words that are devoid of any lexical meaning and possess the grammatical meaning only. This can be explained by the fact that they have no referents in the objective reality. All function words belong to this group – articles, particles, prepositions, etc. The grammatical meaning may be explicit and implicit. The implicit grammatical meaning is not expressed formally (e.g. the word table does not contain any hints in its form as to it being inanimate). The explicit grammatical meaning is always marked morphologically – it has its marker. In the word cats the grammatical meaning of plurality is shown in the form of the noun; cat’s – here the grammatical meaning of possessiveness is shown by the form ‘s; is asked – shows the explicit grammatical meaning of passiveness.
21. It is well known fact that the notional parts of the sentence form together the nominative meaning of the sentence. The division of the sentence into notional parts can be called the nominative division a long side of nominative division. The idea of the actual division has been put forward in theoretical linguistics. Its purpose is to reveal the correlative significance of the sentence parts from the point of view of their actual informative role in an utterance. The main components of the actual division are the “theme” and the “rheme”. Theme expresses the starting point of the communication. Rheme expresses the basic informative part of the communication. Between the theme and the rheme are positioned intermediary parts of the actual division. The theme may or may not coincide with the subject of the sentence. The rheme with a predicate. The actual division finds its full expression only in a concrete context of speech. If it is stylistically neutral construction the theme is the subject and the rheme is the predicate and this kind of actual division is direct. The actual division in which the rheme is expressed by the subject is inverted. The means of expressing the rheme: Lexical meanings – particles (only,even), Logical stress, Change of syntactic structure (It was he who did it), Passive voice. Means of expressing theme. Definite article., Word order.
19 The theory of the article still remains doubtful: is the article a separate part of speech? Is the article a word or a morpheme? Does the article have a meaning?Form: morphologically unchangeable. Function: Expresses the category of definiteness / indefiniteness. Combinability: In the sentence it combines only with the noun and it is never a separate part of the sentence. (the poor, the rich, the wounded, the unemployed.- the process of substantivization.)The def. article is a limiting article. It shows that the object is taken in its concrete individual quality. The indef. article is used to refer a thing to a certain class of a similar things. It expresses classifying generalization and it is called “a classifying article”. The 0 article is the absence of the article which has a group meaning. It is used with certain groups of nouns. (material nouns, abstract nouns, nouns in the plural taken in a general sense.) Omission of the article: The article is omitted for stylistic purposes. (in newspaper headings, in author’s remarks in plays, in dictionaries, in telegrams, in calendars.) In all these cases the omission of the article doesn’t change the meaning expressed. Meaning: The article has a grammatical meaning. By changing the article we change the meaning of the sentence: 1) He knocked at the door and a voice answered. 2) a door, the voice. 3) the door, the voice 4) a door, a voice. The meaning of the article presents a problem. Some linguists say that article has ONE meaning. The others consider that there are more than One meaning. Prof. Ilyish states that each meaning appears in different contexts (The dog has come home. The dog is a domestic animal.)
20. The Statives. Such words as asleep, ablaze, afloat, astir, aloof, afire etc, have always been considered adj, though they: a) can’t (apart from a few special cases) be attributes in a sentence, b) their meaning is not property, c) they don’t have the category of degrees of comparison. Some linguists believe that they constitute a special part of speech, which may be called “stative” & is characterized by the prefix a -. Functions: 1) predicative (preceded by link verbs: be, fall, keep, feel. (The child fell asleep. The house is astir.) 2) objective predicatives (He found her alone)The existence of statives as a separate part of speech is not universally recognized in the English language. Prof-s Barkhudarov & Blokh deny the existence of statives in English on the following grounds: 1) the meaning of “state” is a special variety of the meaning of “property” typical of adjectives, 2) words of this category can be preceded by the word MORE: (More ashamed), 3) they can be modified by adverbs (Painfully alive) & by prepositional phrases (Alive with stars).
However there is nothing to prove that the notion of “state” cannot be the foundation of a separate part of speech.
10. ЧтениеЧт-рецептивный вид речевой деятельности, рецептивная форма речевого общения. Чт как цель - науч уч-ся извлекать инф из текста в том объёме, кот необходим для реш конкретн реч задачи, используя опред технологии чт. Чтение тж может выступать и как ср-во формир и контроля смежн реч умений и яз нав, т.к.: 1) использ-е чтения позволяет уч-ся оптимизир процесс усвоения языкового и реч матер; 2) коммуникат-ориентир задания на контроль лекс, грамм, аудир, письма, устной речи предполаг умение читать и строятся на основе письм текстов 3) упражнения на отраб всех языковых и реч нав и умен тж строятся с опорами на текст. Виды чтения: 1) аналитич (полное понимание, анализ текста) 2) изучающ (полное и точное поним всех основных и второст фактов, их осмысление и запомин) 3) просмотровое (просмотр текста с целью выяснить, содержит ли этот текст полезную читателю инф) 4) поисковое (просмотр текста с целью найти конкретную инф) 5) ознакомительное (Текст прочитывается как можно быстрее с целью понять основное содержание). Некотор методисты не согл с такой классф, в частн Е. Пассов выдел только изучающее и поисковое. В отеч и зарубежн методике разработаны основные требования к текстам при их отборе:аутентичность, соответствие коммун-познав интересам и потребоностям, наполнение страноведч и социокульт инф,соответствие по сложн язык и речев опыту учащихся,разнообразие типов текстов,жанров и функц стилей,наличие прагматич типов текстов,воспитат ценность,графич оформл текста и его иллюстр-остью. 2 взаимосвязанных и неразлож процесса:техника чт и понимание читаемого.Овладение тех навыков чт предполагае овладение графемно-фонемными соотв и структурно-иформ связями.Цель-обеспечить учащ видение структуры читаемого и через неё поним инф.обилие текстов-важное условие формир тех навыков и рецепт умений.Формир тех навыков чт сопряжено с преодол учащ тредностей интерференции,проблема слогообраз, ударения и др.Развитие умений понимания читаемого осущ в процессе чтения текстов разл типов,разд три этапа:1) дотекстовый (предварить содер текста,испол подсказки,рисунки схемы ) 2) текстовый(погружение в текст,выведение грамм и лекс явлений 3) послетекстовый –использ задания для развития умений в говор и письм речи