1 The subject of theoretical phonetics

The terms “phonetics” is derived from the Greek language. Phonetics is often defined as a branch of linguistics dealing with the phonetic structure of a language. It means that phonetics studies:

1: the sounds, their classification and distribution;

2: the syllabic structure of words, syllable formation and syllable division;

3: the accentual structure of words, its nature place and degree;

4: the intonational structure of sentences;

As a branch of linguistics phonetics occupies a peculiar position. Though it is an independent science and develops according to its own laws, it is connected with a number of linguistic and non linguistic sciences.

On the one hand, phonetics is connected with grammar, lexicology, stylistics and the theory of the language. On the other hand, it is connected with physics, biology, physiology, anatomy and others.

Lexicology treats of the vocabulary of a language, of its origin, meaning and word building. Grammar studies the structure of a language and the rules governing the combination of words into sentences. Stylistics means the study of style. The history of language traces its historical development. Phonetics is connected with them because lexical, grammatical and other phenomena are always expressed phonetically.

Phonetics is connected with grammar as it helps to pronounce correctly singular and plural forms of nouns, the past independent and the past participle forms of verbs and other endings, as in: pens, books, classes, asks-asked, lives-lived, invites-invited.

Phonetics is connected with lexicology through the accentual structure of English words in which verbs are formed from nouns by conversion: subject – to subject, import – to import.

Phonetics is connected with stylistics through intonation which serves to express different emotions and to distinguish between different attitudes on the part of the speaker or reader.

Phonetics is connected with physics because speech sounds like any other sounds in nature are acoustic phenomena and may be studied from the point of view of their physical properties.

The articulation of sounds and their perception are connected with anatomy and physiology.

Historical phonetics is connected with general history and history of the people whose language is studied.

2 Sounds: speech mechanisms

Speech sounds are the results of various movements and positions of the human speech organs. They are products of the complicated work of the speech mechanisms. According to their main sound producing functions of speech organs can be divided into the 4 groups:

1: The power mechanism; 2: the vibrator mechanism; 3: the resonator mechanism; 4: the obstructor mechanisms

These 4 mechanisms are closely interconnected, because in the process of production of a sound several speech mechanisms function simultaneously

The main organs of speech belonging to the power mechanism are as follows: the lungs, the windpipe, the glottis, the pharynx, the oral (or mouth) cavity, and the nasal cavity.

In order to speak we need breath. Hence, the function of the power mechanism is to supply the organs of speech with energy in the form of air pressure and to regulate it in the process of speech.

Breathing consist of two phases: inhalation (breathing in) and exhalation (breathing out).

Breathing may be of two kinds:

1: ordinary biological br which takes place when we are silent;

2: sound producing br.

In ordinary br both phases (inhalation and exhalation) are nearly of the same duration. In sound producing br the phases are of different duration: inhalation is quick and deep, whereas exhalation is longer and drawn out.

In ordinary br the stream of air flows out freely: the vocal cords are apart and the glottis is widly open, the soft palate is lowered letting the air through the nasal cavity.

In sound producing br the outflowing air under goes some modifications in the glottis, in the pharynx, and in the mouth cavity.

The vocal cords and the glottis constitute the vibrator mechanism. The vocal cords are situated in the upper part of windpipe, called larynx. The vocal cords resemble two muscular folds which run in a horizontal direction from back to front. The opening between the folds is called the glottis.

When the vocal cords are pulled close together and the glottis reduced to a mere slit, they become an obstacle to the outflowing breath. The air pressure below the vocal cords becomes very strong. As it passed through the narrow slit into the outer air, it makes the vocal cords vibrate. Such vibrations are heard as voice.

To the resonator mechanism belong: the pharynx, the oral cavity and nasal cavity. All the 3 resonance cavities have boundaries or walls. By changing the position of the movable boundaries we may modify the shape and size of the resonators.

The nasal cavity is fixed, while pharynx and oral cavity are modifiable.

It is due to the different movements and positions of the tongue and the lips that the oral resonator may take up various shapes and sizes. The oral resonator is responsible for the articulation of vowels. Movement of the tongue in different directions provide a basis for classification of vowels according to two important principles:

1: according to the horizontal movement of the tongue;

2: according to the vertical movement of the tongue;

The particular quality of vowel sound depends not only on the position of the tongue, but also on that of the lips. The lips perform a double function. The natural resonance is determined not only by shape and size of the resonator but also by the shape and size of the opening of the resonator.

When the lips are spread the front boundary of the oral resonator is formed by the teeth; when the lips are rounded and protruded the front boundary is formed by the lips themselves. In this case the oral resonator is lengthened. This is one of the functions of the lips. Another function of the lips consists in forming the front opening of the oral resonator.

In the articulation of vowel sounds no obstruction is made. The obstructor mechanisms is responsible only for the production of consonants. To the obsructor mechanism belong: the tongue (all its parts), the lips, the teeth, the alveoli (teeth ridge), the palate, the back boundary of the pharynx and the vocal cords. There are several types of articulatory obstructions: complete, incomplete and intermittent.

The obstruction is complete when the articulating organs are in close contact. The air passage is completely blocked. Consonants articulated with this type of obstruction are called occlusive.

The obstruction is incomplete when the organs of speech are not blocked completely but only constricted, or narrowed leaving a passage for the air to go through. Consonants produced with this type of obstruction are called constrictive.

The obstruction is intermittent when the two articulating organs from a series of rapid intermittent taps. Consonants articulated in this way are known as rolled.

The lips, the tongue and the back boundary of the pharynx are the active speech organs.