
- •2. The Noun. The Case. The Article Determination. The Category of Case of the Noun
- •5. The Periodization of the History of English
- •6. Extralinguistic and intralinguistic factors.
- •7. Establishment of the Spoken Standard
- •8. Communicative types of sentences. The Simple Sentence.
- •9. Listening comprehension skill
- •10. Main phonetic changes within the historical context.
- •Quantitative:
- •2 . Qualitative:
- •12. The Verb. Non-finite forms.
- •13. The Noun. Main characteristics
- •14. Developing reading skills
- •15. Classification of English consonants
- •17. Vocabulary development within the historical context.
- •18. Classification of English vowels
- •19. Developing writing skills
- •21. Varieties of the Spoken English
- •23. Developing speaking skills
- •25. The subject-matter of phonetics and phonology
- •26. Teaching phonetic, lexical, grammatical skills.
- •27. Productive and non-productive ways of formation
- •28. Language skill control.
- •30. Lesson
15. Classification of English consonants
In classifying sounds, as in classifying items in any other group, all we need to do is to mention those features by which they differ. There are two major classes of sounds traditionally distinguished by phoneticians in any language: consonants and vowels. English consonants can be classified according to the following principles: 1) the manner of articulation and the type of obstruction (occlusive (in the production of which a complete obstruction is formed:p,b,t,d,k,g,m,n), constrictive (in the production of which an incomplete obstruction is formed:f,v,l,r,TH), and occlusive-constrictive (or affricates: tS,dG) which are produced by combination of complete and incomplete closure). 2) the place of articulation: - according to this principle all consonants are classed into labial (bilabial- cons. are produced with both lips:p,b,m,w, labio-dental-articulated with the lower lip against the edge of the upper teeth: f,v), lingual (mediolingual- are produced with the front part of the tongue raised toward the hard palate:j and backlingual-are produced with the back part of the tongue raised toward the soft palate: k,g; lingual-forelingual- a)interdental TH; b)alveolar:d,t,s,z; c)post-alveolar:r; palate-alveolar:tS,dG) and glottal (articulated with the glottis:h). 3) the force of articulation and the work of the vocal cords; according to the force of exhalation and the degree of muscular tension all consonants are divided into fortis (voiceless) and lenis (voiced). 4) the degree of noise; on this ground English consonants are divided into noise consonants and sonorants (sonorants sound more like vowels than consonants:m,n,r,j,w,l); 5) the position of the soft palate; according to this principle consonants can be oral(b,t,k,f) and nasal – m,n)
16. Replenishment of modem English vocabulary There are two ways of enriching the vocabulary: 1) vocabulary extension – the appearance of new lexical items. New vocabulary units appear mainly as a result of productive ways of word-formation, borrowing from other languages. The most widely used means are ◊affixation. The derivational affixes such as -ness, -er, mini-, over- become unusually active. The suffix -ness is associated with names of abstract qualities and states (e.g. otherness, alone-ness, thingness, oneness, well-to-doness, out-of-the-placeness).
-able. e.g. attachable, acceptable, livable-in, likeable; –prefixal negative adjectives: unguarded, unheard-of, unbinding, unsound, uncool; –prefixal verbs of repetitive meaning (re- + + v -> V), e.g. rearrange, re-train, remap. ◊conversion (presupposes making a new part of speech or forming a new category of a given part of speech. E.g. a house – to house) and ◊composition (combining 2 or more stems and forming compounds)
2) semantic extension – the appearance of new meanings of existing words which may result in homonyms.
Borrowing as a means of replenishing the vocabulary of present-day English is of much lesser importance and is active mainly in the field of scientific -terminology:
1) The present-day English vocabulary is constantly enriched by words made up of morphemes of Latin and Greek origin such as words with the morphemes -tron, tele-, meta-, para-.
2) There are true borrowings from different languages as well. They, as a rule, reflect the way of life, the peculiarities of development of the speech communities from which they come. From the Russian language there came words like kolkhoz, Gosplan, Komsomol, udarnik, sputnik, jak, etc. The words borrowed from the German language at the time of war reflect the aggressive nature of German fascism, e.g. Blitzkrieg , Wehrmacht, Luftwaffe .
3) Loan-translations also reflect the peculiarities of the way of life of the countries they come from, and they easily become stable units of the vocabulary, e.g. fellow-traveller, self-criticism, Socialist democracy, Worker’s Faculty, etc. which all come from the Russian language.
–Вlendings are the result of conscious creation of words by merging irregular fragments of several words which are aptly called “splinters.” (polutician (from pollute and politician), smog (from smoke and fog), ballute (from baloon and parachute), foolosopher echoing philosopher).