2. Lexicological aspects of translation

2.1. Conveying the meanings of language units

Types of Equivalents and Ways of Rendering their Meanings

Descriptive Translation

Antonymic Translation

Types of Equivalents and Ways of Rendering their Meanings

Many SL units have regular equivalents in TL which are used in numerous TT as substitutes to those units. Some of the SL units have permanent equivalents in TL i.e. there is a one-to-one correspondence between such units and their equivalents. Thus London is always rendered into Ukrainian as Лондон, hydrogen as водень. As a rule this type of correspondence is found with words of specific character, such as scientific and technical terms, proper or geographical names and similar words whose meaning is more or less independent of the particular contextual situation.

Other SL units may have several equivalents each. Such one-to-many correspondence between SL and TL units is characteristic of most regular equivalents. The existence of a number of non-permanent (or variable) equivalents to a SL unit implies the necessity of selecting one of them in each particular case, taking into account the way the unit is used in ST and the points of difference between the semantics of its equivalents in TL.

Depending on the type of the language units involved, regular equivalents can be classified as lexical, phraseological or grammatical. Coordinated words in two languages may correspond to each other in one or several components of their semantic structures, while not fully identical in their semantics. For instance, the English word ambitious may denote either praiseworthy or inordinate desires. Its translation will depend on which of these aspects comes to the fore. Thus the ambitious plans of the would-be world conquerors will be translated as честолюбні плани претендентів на роль завойовників всього світу, while the ambitious goals set by the United Nations will give грандіозні цілі, поставлені ООН in the Ukrainian translation.

A variety of equivalents may also result from a more detailed description of the same object in TL. The English word attitude, for instance, is translated as відносини, позиція, політика depending on the variant the Ukrainian language prefers in a particular situation:

1) I don’t like your attitude to your work.

2) There is no sign of any change in the attitudes of the two sides.

3) He stood there in a threatening attitude.

Such an exceptional translation of a SL unit which suits a particular context can be described as an occasional equivalent or a contextual substitute.

Equivalent-lacking words are often found among SL names of specific national phenomena, such as the English words coroner, condominium, impeachment, baby-sitter and the like. However, there are quite a number of ordinary words for which TL may have no equivalent lexical units: fluid, bidder, qualifier, conservationist, etc. Some grammar forms and categories may also be equivalent-lacking (the English gerund, article or absolute participle construction).

Occasional equivalents can be created in one of the following ways:

1. Using loan-words imitating in TL the form of the SL word or word combination, e.g. tribalism – трайболізм, impeachment – імпічмент, backbencher – задньолавочник, brain-drain – витік мізків. Such occasional formations are adopted by the members of the TL community and get the status of regular equivalents.

2. Using approximate substitutes, that is TL words with similar meaning which is extended to convey additional information (if necessary, with the help of foot-notes), e.g. drugstore – аптека, afternoon – вечір. The Ukrainian аптека is not exactly a drugstore where they also sell such items as magazines, soft drinks, ice-cream, etc., but in some cases this approximate equivalent can well be used.

3. Using all kinds of lexical (semantic) transformations modifying the meaning of the SL word, e.g. He died of exposure may be rendered into Ukrainian as Він помер від простуди or Він помер від сонячного удару.

4. Using an explanation to convey the meaning of the SL unit, e.g. landslide –перемога на виборах приголомшливою більшістю голосів, brinkmanship – мистецтво ведення політики на межі війни, etc.

Descriptive translating

The descriptive way of conveying the sense of language units implies their structural transformation which is necessary to explicate their meaning with the help of hierarchically different target language units. Depending on the notion expressed by the source language word, it may be conveyed in the target language sometimes through a word-combination or even through a sentence, i.e., descriptively: indulge – робити собі приємність у чомусь, віддаватися втіхам; infamous – той, що має ганебну славу; inessentials – предмети не першої необхідності, предмети розкошів; вщерть – up to the brim, full to the brim; в'язи – the nape of one's head, the back of the head; окраєць – crust of a loaf, hunk of a bread.

Descriptive translating/interpreting is very often employed to render the sense of idioms/phraseologisms, which have no equivalents in the target language. Cf. in English: (as) mad as a hatter / цілком божевільний; like one (twelve) o'clock / миттю, вмить, прожогом. In Ukrainian: зуб на зуб не попадати / to feel very cold (to feel freezing); навчить біда коржі з маком їсти / hard times make one inventive; наговорити сім мішків гречаної вовни / to say much nonsense.

Descriptive translation is employed when dealing with the notions of specific national lexicon: porridge – порідж (густа вівсяна каша зварена на воді чи молоці); Senate – сенат (рада університету в Англії, складається переважно з професорів); sweet-meal – солодка страва, приготовлена на цукрі чи медові.

Alongside the literal translating some explications of the meaning of specific national notions becomes sometimes necessary: вареники – varenyky , middle-sized dumplings filled with curd, cherries, etc.; дума – duma, Ukrainian historic epic song; кобзар – kobzar, a performer of dumas to the accompaniment of the kobza (a mandoline-like four string musical instrument), the bandore (a flat multistringed Ukrainian musical instrument).

Descriptive translation is also employed in foot-notes to explain obscure places in narration. midland - мідленд, діалект центральної Англії, a spiritual - релігійна пісня афро-америк.

Antonymic translation

Antonymic translation is employed to achieve faithfulness in conveying content or the necessary expressiveness of sense units. It represents a way of rendering when an affirmative in structure language unit (word, word-combination or sentence) is conveyed via a negative in sense or structure but identical in content language unit, or vice versa: a negative in sense or structure sense unit is translated via an affirmative sense unit. Cf.: to have quite a few friends – мати багато (немало) друзів; mind your own business – не втручайся не в свої справи; take it easy – не хвилюйся, не переживай; not infrequently – часто; по time like the present – лови момент (використовуй нагоду); не спитавши броду не лізь у воду - look before you leap; немає лиха без добра - every dark cloud has a silver lining, etc.

The antonymic translation is employed in the following cases:

1) When in the target language there is no direct equivalent for the sense unit of the source language. The meaning of some English word-groups can also be conveyed in Ukrainian antonymically only: Baines was reading a newspaper in his shirt-sleeves. (Gr. Greene). Бейнз сидів без піджака і читав газету. Do you mind this? Ви не заперечуєте?

2) When the sense unit of the source language has two negations of its own which create an affirmation: In those clothes she was by no means non-elegant. (S.Maugham) У цьому вбранні вона була досить елеґантна.

3. In order to achieve the necessary expressiveness in narration: I don't think it will hurt you, baby. (E.Hemingway) Думаю, вам воно не зашкодить, люба. A shell fell close. (Ibid.) Неподалік вибухнув снаряд

4. In order to avoid the use of the same or identical structures close to each other in a text (stylistic aim and means): Mrs. Strickland was a woman of character. (S.Maugham) Місіс Стрікленд була жінкою не без характеру (тобто, була жінка з характером). Most of the staff is not away. (M.Wilson) Більшість співробітників ще на роботі (ще не розійшлися). Savina said nothing. (Ibid.) Савіна промовчала (тобто нічого не відповіла).

Exercise1. Translate the following sentences using one of the possible types of Ukrainian equivalents.

1. The sprawling cities do offer an attractive pattern of development. 2. The age old concept of a feeling of belonging or community welfare has eluded modern sprawling cities. 3. Choosing urban lifestyle against rural living is a fading option for many people. 4. Paradigm shifts in science and revolutionary leaps in technology are frequently coterminous with political and military upheavals. 5. These quakes portend the emergence of new organizing principles and novel threats. 6. Emotions that often intercept rational thinking of a human being are not a hindrance for artificial thinkers. 7. Isaac Newton’s laws of motion defined the concept of inertia and force. 8. Classicism, as we now call it, is a pattern of taste to be found in all the major European states in the eighteenth century. 9. The revolution of planets around the Sun is not observed fact but theory. Still, it is highly confirmed theory. 10. Spirituality helps us to know our real identity. 11. Solar system is a minute component of the vast universe which was formed billions of years ago. 12. Its physical properties makes the planet Earth the only planet to support life form in the solar system. 13. Mars is also referred to as the Red planet due to the reddish appearance it gets from the presence of iron oxide in it. 14. The possibilities of net being explored by enterprises are endless. 15. Social theory is a system of interconnected abstractions or ideas that condenses and organizes knowledge about the social life.16. Their working time is never fixed and may change according to the requirements of their services. 17. To create the great generalizations which bind all loose threads of clues into a coherent whole is an art that has been mastered by only a few till date.

Exercise2. Apply descriptive translation technique while translating the terms in italic in the following sentences.

1. Some industries such as building and construction offer plenty of opportunities for black economy enterprise and many who work in these industries, the so-called moonlighters, have in effect two jobs, one in the formal economy, the other in the black one. 2. The Americal psychologist Frederick Herzberg has proposed a theory of motivation. The main application of the theory is job enlargement (when employeers carry out wider range of tasks) and job enrichment (when employees are given more responsibility) in performing a job by manual workers. 3. The other possible application of the theory is job rotation – when employeers are trained in several minor skills and exchange jobs with each other at intervals. 4. Takeover bids are usually made on attractive terms, relative to the current market price of the shares. 5. In 2000 she diversified into menswear and soon after that she began to export, selling her first licence in Japan in 2003. 6. Divisional structure is associated with market expansion and product diversification. 7. Other central activities might include RD and purchasing to benefit from economies of scale. 8. Productive machines have replaced many of blue-collar workers. 9. We talked with executives who saw themselves as beneficiaries of such leadership. 10. There is a history of white elephants – products that were developed and launched which proved to have little or no demand, e.g. the infamous Sinclair C5 electric car. 11. Companies that sell a wide range of products find it helpful to analyse their offering according to the portfolio theory. 12. Reduced price packs in supermarkets can be used to attract price conscious brand switchers and also to counter a promotion by a competitor. 13. Stores often reduce prices of specific items as loss leaders which bring customers into the shop where they will also buy other goods.14. Supermarkets sell food and basic everyday necessities.

Exercise 3. Apply antonymous translation technique while translating the following sentences.

1. Their situation is not likely to improve soon; some economists predict it will be years, not month, before employees regain any semblance of bargaining power. 2. We have to increase our knowledge of reality that is non-physical. 3. It turned out that he was right, but Copernicus died in 1543, and the first parallax was not discovered untill 1838. 4. This is not the case with machines with artificial intelligence. 5. Perfection is not a myth, it is not impossible; it is the great man’s task. 6. While the psychology did not really emerge as a separate science until the latter half of the 19^th century, its initial history can be traced right back to the ancient Greeks. 7. It is not always the same thing to be a good man and a good citizen. 8. Socrates went on to say that the legal charges were false. 9. Color has so many meanings for different observers that a strict definition is difficult, if not impossible. 10. The industrial expansion that began in the 17 th c. caused a fuel shortage that was not alleviated until the replacement of wood by coal and of charcoal by coke. 11. Not until the appearance of X-ray, radio and nuclear instrumentation were innovations made that compared in importance to the appearance of optical, electrical and electromagnetic apparatus. 12. It is not very easy for us to get this kind of mental up butit is not an impossible task too. 13. Even the Great Depression of the 1930s failed to prevent continued industrial development. 14. It is not uncommon that an institution created for one purpose begins to serve another. 15. The contrast between two disputants was not without effect.

Exercise 4. Translate the following sentences using one of the possible types of English equivalents.

Хоча рішення, які формують американську економіку, приймаються споживачами й виробниками, уряд має потужний вплив на неї.

Для того, щоб бізнес якнайкраще служив народові, уряд регулює та контролює приватне підприємництво багатьма різними шляхами. Поширена думка, що втручання потрібне там, де приватному підприємництву надано монополію (скажімо, в електро-енергопостачанні чи телефонії), або в тих галузях, де відсутня широка конкуренція (залізничні перевезення). Державна політика дозволяє таким компаніям мати в розумних межах прибуток, водночас обмежує їхні можливості щодо «несправедливого» (за визначенням законодавців) підвищення тарифів на послуги, адже громадськість чекає на такі послуги і залежить від них. Часто до контрольних заходів вдаються, щоб захистити громадськість, – наприклад, коли управління контролю якості продуктів та медикаментів забороняє той чи інший небезпечний для здоров'я препарат або вимагає від виробників продуктів дотримання стандартів якості. В інших галузях промисловості уряд встановлює певні правила гри, аби сприяти розгортанню чесної й здорової конкуренції без прямого втручання зі свого боку.