Incorrect inclusion or omission of prepositions

A preposition is often used when one is not needed, or not used when one is needed.

According many critics, Mark Twain's novel Huckleberry Finn is his greatest work and is

one of the greatest American novels ever written.

The preposition to has been omitted from the phrase according to.

Some of the most of spectacular caves are found in the Crimean mountains.

The preposition of should not be used in this phrase. (When most means "majority," it can be used in the phrase most of the. "Most of the people agree...," for example. However, in this sentence, most is part of the superlative form of the adjective spectacular, and so cannot be used with of.

Identify correct and incorrect preposition choice. Underline the prepositions that correctly complete the sentences below.

Wage rates depend (in/on) part (from/on) the general prosperity (of/for) the economy.

(For/To) an injection to be effective (on/against) tetanus, it must be administered (by/within) 72 hours (of/for) the injury.

The invention (of/for) the hand-cranked freezer opened the door (for/to) commercial ice-cream production, and (for/since) then, the ice-cream industry has grown (in/into) a four-billion-dollar-a-year industry.

(At/On) the time (of/in) the Revolutionary War, the North American colonies were merely a long string (with/of) settlements (along/among) the Atlantic Coast (between/from) Maine and Georgia.

The probability (of/for) two people (in/on) a group (of/for) ten people having birthdays (in/on) the same day is about one (in/of) twenty.

Showboats were floating theaters that tied up (at/to) towns (in/on) the Ohio and Mississippi Rivers to bring entertainment and culture (to/at) the people (on/in) the frontier.

.Scrimshaw, the practice (of/for) carving ornate designs (in/on) ivory, was first practiced (by/of) sailors working (by/with) sail needles while (in/on) long sea voyages.

Bird Island, (off/of) the coast (off/of) the Crimea, is famous (for/to) its flocks (of/with) wild geese.

(In/On) order (for/to) an object to be visible, light must travel (from/for) that object (at/to) a person's eves.

Identify and correct errors involving prepositions

Chemical pollutants produced by human activity are destroying the protective layer of ozone between Earth's surface to upper atmosphere.

Ozone concentrations above the United States decreased by 5 to 6 per cent from 1990 and 2000.

Ultraviolet radiation causes a range of health problems – between skin cancer with blindness.

United Nations scientists reported ozone losses since 1991 to 2001 above temperate areas of Earth between the tropics to the poles.

NASA scientists announce that levels of chlorine monoxide resulting from the breakdown of CFC's have been at record levels since 10 years.

24 nations, including the United States, signed an agreement since September 1987 planning to limit the production of CFC's.

They promised to limit the production of CFC's since at least 20 years.

This agreement has been validated in 1991.

Depending of their measurements a 40 per cent reduction in ozone concentrations over Antarctica took place between the mid-1970's to 1984.

On March 1974, scientists first proposed about the idea that manufactured chemicals could threaten to the ozone layer.

Unit 1-8. CULTURE’S COMPONENTS

Section 1. Guidelines for cross-cultural communication

ESP students already bring their knowledge of the subject matter into the reading task, and their backgrounds in their fields will help make the reading materials more comprehensible to them. Students' higher level cognitive skills can be tapped by giving them advance information about the texts they are asked to read, and by teaching them to preview texts before beginning to read.

Previewing is a quick reading for general familiarity, in which students: a) read the introductory paragraph; b) read the first sentence of each of the body paragraphs; and c) read the entire concluding paragraph. This should take students only a few minutes, and will enhance their reading comprehension.

Skimming and scanning.

To remind: Skimming is quick reading to get the general drift of a passage. Students can be asked to skim a text to discover the author's purpose. Scanning is a focused search for specific information.

Text 1-8. CULTURE’S COMPONENTS

(Based on Intercultural Communication: A Reader by Larry A. Samovar, Richard E. Porter, Edwin R. McDaniel)

A. Major Characteristics Of Culture

While there are many explanations of what culture is and does, there is general agreement on what constitutes its major characteristics. An examination of these characteristics will provide increased understanding of the abstract, multifaceted concept and also offer insight into how communication is influenced by culture.

1. Culture Is Learned. At birth, we have no knowledge of the many societal rules needed to function effectively in our culture, but we quickly begin to internalize this information. Through interactions, observations, and imitation, the proper ways of thinking, feeling, and behaving are communicated to us.

Being taught to eat with a fork, a pair of chopsticks or even one’s fingers is learning cultural behavior. Attending a Catholic mass on Sunday or praying at a Jewish Synagogue on Saturday is learning cultural behaviors and values. Celebrating Christmas, Kwanzaa, Ramadan, or Yom Kippur is learning cultural traditions. Culture is also acquired from art, proverbs, folklore, history, religion, and a variety of other sources. This learning, often referred to as enculturation, is both conscious and subconscious, and has the objective of teaching us how to function properly within our cultural milieu.

2. Culture Is Transmitted Intergenerationally. Spanish philosopher George Santayana wrote, “Those who cannot remember the past are condemned to repeat it.” He was certainly not referring to culture, which exists only if it is remembered and repeated by people.

You learned your culture from family members, teachers, peers, books, personal observations, and a host of media sources. The appropriate way to act, what to say, and things to value were all communicated to the members of your generation by these many sources. You are also a source for passing these cultural expectations, usually with little or no variation, to succeeding generations. Culture represents our link to the past and, through future generations, hope for the future. The critical factor in this equation is communication.

3. Culture Is Symbolic. Words, gestures, and images are merely symbols used to convey meaning. It is our ability to use these symbols that allows us to engage in the many forms of social intercourse used to construct and convey culture. Our symbol-making ability facilitates learning and enables transmission of meaning from one person to another, group to group, and generation to generation. In addition to transmitting meaning, the portability of symbols creates the ability to store information, which allows cultures to preserve what is considered important and to create a history. The preservation of culture provides each new generation with a road map to follow and a reference library to consult when unknown situations are encountered. Succeeding generations may modify established behaviors or values, or construct new ones, but the accumulation of past traditions is what we know as culture.

4. Culture Is Dynamic. Despite its historical nature, culture is never static. Within a culture, new ideas, inventions, and exposure to other cultures create change. Discoveries such as the stirrup, gunpowder, the nautical compass, penicillin, and nuclear power are demonstrations of culture’s susceptibility to innovation and new ideas. More recently, advances made by minority groups, the women’s movement, and gay rights advocates have significantly altered the fabric of contemporary U.S. society. Invention of the computer chip and the Internet and the discovery of DNA have brought profound changes not only to U.S. culture but also to the rest of the world.

Diffusion, or cultural borrowing, is also a source of change. Think about how common pizza (Italian), sushi (Japanese), tacos (Mexican), and tandoori chicken and naan bread (India) now are in the U.S. American diet. The Internet has accelerated cultural diffusion by making new knowledge and insights easily accessible. Immigrants bring their own cultural practices, traditions, and artifacts, some of which become incorporated into the culture of their new world. These perceptions are strongly influenced by culture. In other words, we see, hear, feel, taste, and even smell the world through the criteria that culture has placed on our perceptions. Thus, one’s idea of beauty, attitude toward the elderly, concept of self in relation to others—even one’s perception of what tastes good or bad – are culturally influenced and can vary among social groups. For example, Vegemite is a yeast extract spread used on toast and sandwiches that is sometimes referred to as the “national food” of Australia. Yet, few people other than those from Australia or New Zealand like the taste, or even the smell, of this salty, dark paste.

As you would expect, perception is an important aspect of intercultural communication, because people from dissimilar cultures frequently perceive the world differently. Thus, it is important to be aware of the more relevant socio-cultural elements that have a significant and direct influence on the meanings we assign to stimuli. These elements represent our belief, value, and attitude systems and our worldview.

B. Constructs Of Culture: Beliefs, Values, and Attitudes

5. Beliefs can be defined as individually held subjective ideas about the nature of an object or event. These subjective ideas are, in large part, a product of culture, and they directly influence our behaviors. Bullfighting is thought to be cruel and inhumane by most people in the United States, but certainly not by the many people in Spain and Mexico who love the sport. A strict adherent of Judaism or Islam would probably find the thought of eating a ham sandwich repulsive. Regarding religion, many people believe that there is only one god but others pay homage to multiple deities.

6. Values represent those things we hold important in life, such as morality, ethics, and aesthetics. We use values to distinguish between the desirable and the undesirable. Each person has a set of unique, personal values and a set of shared, cultural values. The latter are a reflection of the rules a culture has established to reduce uncertainty, lessen the likelihood of conflict, help in decision making, and provide structure to social organization and interactions.

Cultural values are a motivating force behind our behaviors. Someone from a culture that places a high value on harmonious social relations, such as Japan, will likely employ an indirect communication style. In contrast, a U.S. American can be expected to use a more direct style, because frankness, honesty, and openness are valued.

7. Attitudes. Our beliefs and values push us to hold certain attitudes, which are learned tendencies to act or respond in a specific way to events, objects, people, or orientations. Culturally instilled beliefs and values exert a strong influence on our attitudes. Thus, people tend to embrace what is liked and avoid what is disliked. Someone from a culture that considers cows sacred will take a negative attitude toward your invitation to have a Big Mac for lunch.

8. Worldview. Although quite abstract, the concept of worldview is among the most important elements of the perceptual attributes influencing intercultural communication. Stated simply, worldview is what forms people’s orientation toward such philosophical concepts as deities, the universe, nature, and the like.

Normally, worldview is deeply imbedded in one’s psyche and operates on a subconscious level. This can be problematic in an intercultural situation, where conflicting worldviews can come into play. As an example, many Asian and Native North American cultures hold a worldview that people should have a harmonious, symbiotic relationship with nature. In contrast, Euro-Americans are instilled with the concept that people must conquer and mold nature to conform to personal needs and desires. Individuals from nations possessing these two contrasting worldviews could well encounter difficulties when working to develop an international environmental protection plan. The concept of democracy, with everyone having an equal voice in government, is an integral part of the U.S. worldview. Contrast this with Afghanistan and parts of Africa, where worldviews hold that one’s tribe takes precedence over the central government.

C. Cognitive Patterns Of Culture

Another important consideration in intercultural communication is the influence of culture on cognitive thinking patterns, which include reasoning and approaches to problem solving. In some cultures male friends may engage in a bear hug and kiss each other on both cheeks. People from Japan and India traditionally bow to greet each other. Japanese men will place their hands at the side of the body and bow from the waist, with the lower-ranking person bowing first and dipping lower than the other person.

Indians will perform the namaste, which entails holding the hands together in a prayer-like fashion at mid-chest while slightly bowing the head and shoulders.

Eye contact is another important culturally influenced nonverbal communication behavior. For U.S. Americans, direct eye contact is an important part of making a good impression during an interview. However, in some cultures, direct eye contact is considered rude or threatening. Among some Native Americans, children are taught to show adults respect by avoiding eye contact. When giving a presentation in Japan, it is common to see people in the audience with their eyes shut, because this is thought to facilitate listening. (Try it – you may be surprised) How a person dresses also sends a strong nonverbal message. What are your thoughts when you see an elderly woman wearing a hijab, a Jewish boy with a yarmulke, or a young black man in a colorful dashiki? Nonverbal facial and body expressions, like language, form a coding system for constructing and expressing meaning, and these expressions are culture bound. Through culture, we learn which nonverbal behavior is proper for different social interactions.

But what is appropriate and polite in one culture may be disrespectful or even insulting in another culture. People engaging in intercultural communication, therefore, should try to maintain a continual awareness of how body behaviors may influence an interaction.

D. Contextual Influences Or Rules In Culture

We have defined culture as a set of rules established and used by a group of people to conduct social interaction. These rules determine what is considered correct communicative behavior, including both verbal and nonverbal elements, for both physical and social (situational) contexts. For example, you would not normally attend a funeral wearing shorts and tennis shoes or talk on your cell phone during the service. Your culture has taught you that these behaviors are contextually inappropriate (i.e., disrespectful).

Context is also an important consideration in intercultural communication interactions, where the rules for specific situations usually vary. What is appropriate in one culture is not necessarily correct in another. As an example, among most White U.S. Americans, church services are relatively serious occasions, but among African American congregations, services are traditionally more demonstrative, energetic gatherings.

In a restaurant in Germany, the atmosphere is usually somewhat subdued, with customers engaging in quiet conversation. In Spain, however, the conversation is much louder and more animated. In U.S. universities, students are expected to interactively engage the instructor, but in Japan the expectation is that the instructor will simply lecture, with very little or no interaction.

In these examples, we see the importance of having an awareness of the cultural rules governing the context of an intercultural communication exchange. Unless all parties in the exchange are sensitive to how culture affects the contextual aspects of communication, difficulties will most certainly arise and could negate effective interaction.

UNDERSTANDING THE TEXT ORGANIZATION: LOGISTICS, SUBHEADINGS, CONTEXT, KEY WORDS, SPECIFIC WORDS

Instruction: Discovering text organization through its logistics. The detailed organization and implementation of text essentials is discovered by using the techniques of surveying, scanning and skim reading which help you find information about the topic of the whole text and its parts. These techniques will also tell you something about how the text is organized. While you are reading, you will probably find some ambiguous words or word combinations. However, this does not have to be a problem. Firstly, you should decide whether the word is important for you. Understanding the word may not be necessary to understand the text. If you think a word is important, there are some strategies given below you can use to help guess the meaning of the word.

Guessing the Meaning of Words

Supposing you find words you do not understand, it won’t be a problem if you get used to follow some regular strategies offered below:

Look at the context

Often you can guess the meaning of a word from the other words around it. E.g.: ... many people believe that there is only one god but others pay homage to multiple deities. It is obvious that deities is equivalent to gods.

Check the part of speech of a word

Knowing whether the word is a noun (singular or plural), a verb, an adjective or an adverb can help you decide on its meaning within the context. E.g.: What are your thoughts when you see an elderly woman wearing a hijab, a Jewish boy with a yarmulke, or a young black man in a colorful dashiki? You can guess that these nouns denote nationally/religiously identifying articles of clothing.

Also, you may already know one form of the word (e.g. the noun contamination) but not the others (e.g. the noun enculturation, the noun culture, or the verb to enculturate), so you should look closely at the root word to give you a clue.

Use your previous knowledge of English

You may have seen the word in a different context. You can use your previous knowledge and the new context to work out the meaning. Or you may know the separate parts of a word, but may be unfamiliar with the word as a whole. You can use this knowledge to help you work out the meaning.

Check if there is a definition

Sometimes there will be a definition, explanation or example of a vaguely understood word, e.g., Diffusion, or cultural borrowing. These can be introduced by a variety of words – is, means, refers to, in other words, and i.e..

Look for any linking words or discourse markers

Linking words or discourse markers – such as however, but, therefore, for example, so that, finally, stated simply – may help to indicate the meaning of a particular word. E.g.: ... the concept of worldview is among the most important elements of the perceptual attributes influencing intercultural communication. Stated simply, worldview is what forms people’s orientation toward such philosophical concepts as deities, the universe, nature, and the like.

Text organisation. Headings and subheadings clearly delineate the logistics of the text. Sections A, B, C, and D identify 4 main constructs of culture.

Answer the following questions:

What are the four major characteristics of culture?

What are the four major constructs of culture?

What is meant by the cognitive patterns of culture?

What is meant by the contextual rules of culture?

You should skim a paragraph or section before choosing the correct answer from the text. Remember that it is more efficient to skim the long piece of text first and get the idea of the whole text. Then you can look through the alternative headings very quickly.

Step 1. Survey the text. The headings will give you some clues to help you quickly understand what each part of the text is about.

Step 2. Skim-read each paragraph. Every paragraph deals with a specific aspect of a topic. The first sentence of a paragraph may tell you what the rest of the paragraph is about. Therefore while trying to identify the main idea of a paragraph, you should read the first sentence and skim the rest of the paragraph.

Scan the text for key words.

This title Culture’s components can help you understand that key words must concern any kinds of constructs, or be connected with effects, of culture.

Follow the three-step strategy to make finding key words easier.

Step 1. Make sure you know what you are looking for.

Step 2. Scan each paragraph for 4-5 key words. Do not read every word.

Step 3. Select 5-10 key words for the whole text.

Write a 10-line abstract of the text basing on the key words. Make sure to mention all characteristics, constructs, cognitive patterns and contextual rules of culture.

Collect specific information by pointing out groups of synonyms, semantic and thematic groups. Keep it in mind that vocabulary in context includes both single words (usually nouns, verbs, adjectives, and adverbs). and two- or three-word phrases.

Section 2. Grammar workout

Preposition use

It is important that you be familiar with the correct usage of prepositions and practice these prepositions in sentences:

Adjectives/Participles + Prepositions (1)

acceptable to, accustomed to, adequate for, afraid of, aware of, based on, capable of, characteristic of, close to, composed of, contrary to, dependent on, different from, disappointed in/with, eligible for equipped with equal to essential to/for familiar with famous for.

Adjectives/Participles + Prepositions (2)

free of next to related to

independent of opposed to relevant to

inferior to opposite of satisfied with

married to perfect for suitable for

native to possible for surprised at/by

necessary for/to preferable to typical of

Opposite of is used for words or concepts that are completely different, such as "large" and "small." When opposite means "across from," it is not used with of. "The bank is opposite the post office on Cedar Street."

Nouns + Prepositions

approach to exception to origin of

attention to experience with price of

because of expert on probability of

contribution to form of quality of

component of group of reason for

cure for improvement in reliance on

increase in increase in result of

demand for influence on solution to

effect of/on* interest in supply of

example of native of

*effect + of + cause

effect + on + thing or person affected (The effect o/heat on rocks...)

Verbs + Prepositions

account for compete with insist on

adjust to concentrate on interfere with

agree with/on* consist of plan on

attach to contribute to participate in

attribute to cooperate with refer to

begin with deal with rely on

believe in depend on result in

belong to devote to search for

combine with engage in

*agree with is used with people

agree on is used with an issue, plan, etc. (I agreed with Mary on that issue.)

Phrasal Prepositions

according to due to on account of

ahead of except for prior to

along with in favor of regardless of

because of in spite of thanks to

bу means of instead of together with

In, On, and At (1)

Expressions of time

+ century (in the eighteenth century) + decade (in the 1990s)

+ year (in 1975) in

+ season (in the summer)

+ month (in July)

+ parts of the day (in the morning, in the evening, in the afternoon)

+ days of the week (on Wednesday) + dates (on October 7)

+ time of day (at 6pm; at noon)

+ night

Expressions of place

+ continent (in Africa)

+ country (in Mexico)

+ state (in Pennsylvania)

+ city (in Los Angeles)

+ building (in the bank)

+ room (in the auditorium)

+ in the world

+ street (on Maxwell Street)

on + floor of a building (on the fourth floor)

+ on Earth

at + address (at 123 Commonwealth Avenue)

In, On, and At, (2)

The prepositions in, on, and at are also used in a number of set expressions:

in a book/magazine/newspaper on a bus/train/etc. at best/worst

in charge (o0 on fire at first/last

in common (with) on the other hand at once

in danger (of) on purpose at the peak (of)

in detail on radio/television at present

in existence on the whole at the moment

in the front/middle/back at birth

in general at death

in practice at random

in the past/future

in a row

in style

in theory

Other Prepositions

By is often used with forms of communication and transportation: by car, by plane, by phone, by express mail (Note: if the noun is plural or is preceded by a determiner, the prepositions in or on must be used: in cars, on a boat, on the telephone, in a taxi).

By is also used with gerunds to show how an action happened:

How did you get an appointment with the President? By calling his secretary.

With is used to indicate the idea of accompaniment or possession:

Melanie came to the party with her friend. He wanted a house with a garage.

Without indicates the opposite relationship:

Melanie came to the party without her friend. He bought a house without a garage.

With also indicates that an instrument was used to perform an action:

He opened the door with a key. Without indicates the opposite relationship:

He opened the door without a key.

By and for are also used in the following expressions:

by chance for example

by far for free

by hand for now

For is sometimes used to show purpose; it means "to get."

She went to the store for toothpaste and shampoo.

Unit 1-9. COMMUNICATION AND CULTURE

Section 1. Guidelines for cross-cultural communication

A study of intercultural communication brings together two important kinds of insights: the cultural shaping of communication practices, and the interactional dynamics that occur among culturally shaped communication practices. Cultural analysis raises the general question: how is communication shaped as a cultural practice When people are engaged in communication, what significance and meaning does it have for them?

These general research questions, about the cultural nature and the meanings of communication, are based upon the view that communication both presumes and constitutes social realities; and further, that as people communicate, so they engage in a meta-cultural commentary, that is, they say things explicitly and implicitly about who they are, how they are related to each other, how they feel, what they are doing, and how they are situated in the nature of things. These concerns about identity, relationships, emotions, and actions are in an excerpt from the book by L. Samovar et al, given below.

Text 1-9. THE FRAMEWORK OF COMMUNICATION AND CULTURE

(Based on Intercultural Communication: A Reader by Larry A. Samovar, Richard E. Porter, Edwin R. McDaniel)