9. Make valid inferences based on the questions:

• Why does the author mention English lingua divina?

• Why does the author refer to Modern English as lingua frankensteinia?

• Why does the author mention English lingua cucula?

• Why does the author use the phrase “History the age-old battle between progress and reaction, between those who embrace the modern world and those who reject its existence.”?

• Why does the author describe the seemingly innocuous terms like ‘language death’ and ‘language spread’ as concepts that obscure agency?

Sample Answer Choices:

The author refers to / The author describes / The author uses the phrase / The phrase ___proves that /The phrase ___is mentioned to illustrate that (to indicate that; to strengthen the argument that; to provide an example of; to challenge the idea that; to contradict; to support the proposal to; to illustrate the effect of; to make it easy for the reader to understand how; etc.

Section 2. Grammar workout

Identify and correct errors involving verbs and verbals

As national education systems (create/are creating/are created/will create/have created) suitable employees, transnational corporations (shift/are shifting/are shifted/will shift/have shifted) their research and development centres to developing countries

The wind (are carried/carry/carries/is carried) pollen spores in Earth's upper atmosphere.

These problems may (to create/create/creating/ will create) an increase in human diseases.

They may also lead to (dwindle/dwindling/dwindled) supplies of food, (put/putting/to put) greater strains on governments.

Humanity (destroy/ destroyed/is destroying) the natural systems upon which it (depending/depend/depends). Improvements in medicine (propels/propel/has propelled) population growth by enabling people to live longer. Economic development is the key to (slow/slowing/how to slow) down population growth.

The demographic transition has helped (reducing/reduce/to reduce) the growth of population. One of the problems (to have/having/of having) an increasing world population is the difficulty (to feed/feeding/of feeding) everyone.

Unfortunately, a rapidly expanding population can by itself (preventing/prevent/to prevent) a developing nation from (improve/to improve/improving/improving of) its economy.

Loss of farmlands (are, were, is, was) a major cause of the decline in agricultural production. Usable farmland (lost/is lost/will lost) for many reasons, but erosion and salinization (are, were, is, was) the major cause. Modern agricultural techniques (do/make) it possible (producing/to produce/produce) the same amount of food (to use/ using/by using) the labor of fewer people.

3 percent (are, were, is, was) insignificant for population growth difference between advanced and poor nations.

Errors with parallel structures

Structures that are often involved in parallelism are nouns, adjectives, verbs, prepositional phrases, gerunds, and infinitives.

Some problems with parallelism are actually word form problems similar to previously discussed: As a young man, George Washington liked boating, to hunt, and fishing. In general, errors involving parallelism are easy to identify.

Identify and correct errors involving parallelism. If the underlined form is parallel to other forms in the sentence, mark the sentence C (Correct). If the underlined form is not parallel, mark the sentence I (Incorrect), and write a correction for the underlined form in the blank at the end of the sentence. A languaging perspective regards boundaries between languages as (1) arbitrary and historically contingent, as the result of particular histories of (2) standard and regulation. (3) Standardizing language means compartmentalization the free and unbounded languaging of a particular geographical area and class of people as the language for that particular geographical area and its people and freezing its evolution. (4) Standardizing language also means enregister particular linguistic features as normative: selecting particular phonemes, morphemes, words, syntax, etc. as normal, as the norms for the language while designating all variation to those norms as (5) sub-standard, dialect, or even deficit language.

MODULE 1-2. THE SKILLS OF CROSS-CULTURAL COMMUNICATION

Unit 1-7. CROSS-CULTURAL COMMUNICATION – THE NEW NORM

Section 1. Guidelines for reading texts on cross-cultural communication

Teaching culture in the ESP reading classes should not be separated from teaching ESP organisation and language content, and consequently, ESP text analysis should also include understanding skills of the cross-cultural communication. Success in intercultural communication depends greatly on operational expertise. This module emphasizes the importance of learning target culture, as well as introduces the analysis of culture texts in English. Understanding cultural differences will benefit and facilitate cross-cultural com­munication under diverse circumstances. Thereby, this issue is relevant to ESP reading classes focusing on the improvement of both students’ language and cultural skills.

Text 1-7. CROSS-CULTURAL COMMUNICATION – THE NEW NORM

(After Michelle LeBaron’s Cross-Cultural Communication. Beyond Intractability)

“We didn't all come over on the same ship, but we're all in the same boat." – Bernard Baruch, American financier and statesman.

It's no secret that today's workplace is rapidly becoming vast, as the business environment expands to include various geographic locations and span numerous cultures. What can be difficult, however, is understanding how to communicate effectively with individuals who speak another language, or who rely on different means to reach a common goal.

1. The Internet and modern technology have opened up new marketplaces that allow us to promote our businesses to new geographic locations and cultures. And given that it can now be as easy to work with people remotely as it is to work face-to-face, cross-cultural communication is increasingly the new norm.

After all, if communication is electronic, it's as easy to work with someone in another country as it is to work with someone in the next town.

And why limit yourself to working with people within convenient driving distance when, just as conveniently, you can work with the most knowledgeable people in the entire world?

For those of us who are native English-speakers, it is fortunate that English seems to be the language that people use if they want to reach the widest possible audience. However, even for native English speakers, cross-cultural communication can be an issue: Just witness the mutual incomprehension that can sometimes arise between people from different English-speaking countries.

In this new world, good cross-cultural communication is a must.

2. Given different cultural contexts, this brings new communication challenges to the workplace. Even when employees located in different locations or offices speak the same language (for instance, correspondences between English-speakers in the U.S. and English-speakers in the UK), there are some cultural differences that should be considered in an effort to optimize communications between the two parties.

In such cases, an effective communication strategy begins with the understanding that the sender of the message and the receiver of the message are from different cultures and backgrounds. Of course, this introduces a certain amount of uncertainty, making communications even more complex.

Without getting into cultures and sub-cultures, it is perhaps most important for people to realize that a basic understanding of cultural diversity is the key to effective cross-cultural communications. Without necessarily studying individual cultures and languages in detail, we must all learn how to better communicate with individuals and groups whose first language, or language of choice, does not match our own.

3. However, some learning the basics about culture and at least something about the language of communication in different countries is important. This is necessary even for the basic level of understanding required to engage in appropriate greetings and physical contact, which can be a tricky area inter-culturally. For instance, kissing a business associate is not considered an appropriate business practice in the U.S., but in Paris, one peck on each cheek is an acceptable greeting. And, the firm handshake that is widely accepted in the U.S. is not recognized in all other cultures.

While many companies now offer training in the different cultures where the company conducts business, it is important that employees communicating across cultures practice patience and work to increase their knowledge and understanding of these cultures. This requires the ability to see that a person's own behaviors and reactions are oftentimes culturally driven and that while they may not match our own, they are culturally appropriate.

If a leader or manager of a team that is working across cultures or incorporates individuals who speak different languages, practice different religions, or are members of a society that requires a new understanding, he or she needs to work to convey this.

Consider any special needs the individuals on your team may have. For instance, they may observe different holidays, or even have different hours of operation. Be mindful of time zone differences and work to keep everyone involved aware and respectful of such differences.

Generally speaking, patience, courtesy and a bit of curiosity go a long way. And, if you are unsure of any differences that may exist, simply ask team members. Again, this may best be done in a one-on-one setting so that no one feels "put on the spot" or self-conscious, perhaps even embarrassed, about discussing their own needs or differences or needs.

4. Next, cultivate and demand understanding and tolerance. In doing this, a little education will usually do the trick. Explain to team members that the part of the team that works out of the Australia office, for example, will be working in a different time zone, so electronic communications and/or return phone calls will experience a delay. And, members of the India office will also observe different holidays (such as Mahatma Gandhi's Birthday, observed on October 2).

Most people will appreciate the information and will work hard to understand different needs and different means used to reach common goals. However, when this is not the case, lead by example and make it clear that you expect to be followed down a path of open-mindedness, acceptance and tolerance.

Tip: Tolerance is essential. However, you need to maintain standards of acceptable behavior. The following "rules of thumb" seem universal:

• Team members should contribute to and not hinder the team's mission or harm the delivery to the team's customer.

• Team members should not damage the cohesion of the team or prevent it from becoming more effective.

• Team members should not unnecessarily harm the interests of other team members.

Other factors (such as national law) are obviously important.

When dealing with people in a different culture, courtesy and goodwill can also go a long way in ensuring successful communication. Again, this should be insisted on.

If your starting point in solving problems is to assume why communication has failed, you'll find that many problems are quickly resolved.

5. When you communicate, keep in mind that even though English is considered the international language of business, it is a mistake to assume that every businessperson speaks good English. In fact, only about half of the 800 million people who speak English learned it as a first language. And, those who speak it as a second language are often more limited than native speakers.

When you communicate cross-culturally, make particular efforts to keeping your communication clear, simple and unambiguous.

And (sadly) avoid humor until you know that the person you're communicating with "gets it" and isn't offended by it. Humor is notoriously culture-specific: Many things that pass for humor in one culture can be seen as grossly offensive in another.

6. Finally, if language barriers present themselves, it may be in every one's best interest to employ a reliable, experienced translator. Because English is not the first language of many international business people, their use of the language may be peppered with culture-specific or non-standard English phrases, which can hamper the communication process. Again, having a translator on hand (even if just during the initial phases of work) may be the best solution here. The translator can help everyone involved to recognize cultural and communication differences and ensure that all parties, regardless of geographic location and background, come together and stay together through successful project completion.

UNDERSTANDING THE TEXT ORGANIZATION: SUBHEADINGS, KEY WORDS, REFERENTS, LINKING WORDS

Instruction: While in class, you do not have time to read every word carefully. Remember that your starting task is not to understand all of the text. It is often only necessary to read a small part of the text carefully to find some specific information.

In most well-written English texts, every paragraph deals with a specific aspect of a topic. The first sentence of a paragraph usually tells the reader what the rest of the paragraph is about so when you are trying to identify the main idea of a paragraph, you should read the first sentence carefully. Then, keeping the idea of the first sentence in mind, you should quickly check the rest of the paragraph, picking up only some of the words.

This is skim reading or skimming. Using this technique you will have a general idea of what the writer is saying about the topic. Surveying the text tells you about the topic or subject of the text. It may also tell you something about how the text is organized (subheadings are especially useful). Surveying may also tell you something about the writer's purpose—whether the intention is to give instructions, to compare, to give information, and so on.

Step 1 – Survey the text

Surveying has already been discussed several times in this book. Can you remember what to look at when you survey? A list of headings can give you some useful information to help you quickly understand what each part of the text will be about.

Step 2 – Skim read each paragraph

Every paragraph deals with a specific aspect of a topic. The first sentence of a paragraph will most probably tell the you what the rest of the paragraph is about so when you are trying to identify the main idea of a paragraph, you should read the first sentence carefully. Using this technique you will have a general idea of what the writer is saying in each paragraph.

Step 3 – Determine which heading is the best match for each of the paragraphs marked by the numbers.

(Note that you are trying to identify topics only.) This will help you know where (in which paragraph or section) to scan later for the answer to a question. If the text has a lot of subheadings, it is much easier to identify text organization.

And Get Help if You Need It	1
Collaborative Efforts – a Must!	2
Demand Tolerance	3
Developing Awareness of Individual Cultures	4
Keep it Simple	5
Understanding Cultural Diversity	6

Of course, when you skim-read a text you cannot get as much information from the text as when you read it all carefully, but by skimming you can quickly get enough information to help you get context clues. Remember that efficient use of time is one of the most important skills.

You will have to adjust the speed of your skimming according to how easy the text is for you to understand. If a paragraph does not have a first sentence which gives the topic of the paragraph clearly, you have to skim more carefully. But don't forget that you should not read every word – reading every word will waste too much time.

To remind: the best way to find details quickly is to use scanning. Scanning is searching for key words or synonyms by looking quickly through the text. For example, you scan when you look for a word in a dictionary. You do not read every word as you search for the word(s) you want.

Scanning paragraphs for key words

The best way to find key words is to use scanning by looking quickly through the text. Your eyes move across and down through the text without reading it in your normal way.

Also, another source which tells you how to find key words is the subject or the source of the text. Look at the text CROSS-CULTURAL COMMUNICATION – THE NEW NORM. This title can help you understand that key words must concern any kinds of norms or be connected with norms.

E.g.: in paragraph 1 it is possible to point out the following key words: cross-cultural communication, norm, to work, distance.

Task: Find 4-5 key words in each paragraph

Follow the three-step strategy to make finding the answer easier.

Step 1 – Survey the text:

Look at any parts of the text that stand out:

the title, section headings or subheadings,

any words in special print (bold, italics, CAPITALS or underlined).

Step 2 – Make sure you know what you are looking for:

scan for key words or synonyms by looking over the text,

do not read every word.

Step 3 – Select 5-10 key words for the whole text:

Reference words

Reference words are nouns (called the referents), pronouns or some expressions referred to. The correct reference is NOT always the noun that is closest to the pronoun in the passage.

The correct choices are usually other nouns that appear in the passage. If you are unable to decide immediately which referent is correct, substitute the possible choices for the word that is being asked about.

E.g.: Structurally, the word combination the cohesion of the team should be the referent for the pronoun it in the following sentence: Team members should not damage the cohesion of the team or prevent it from becoming more effective. However the author makes a logical mistake because of the two nouns the cohesion can be damaged but the team can be prevented from becoming more effective.

Task: What is the referent for the following italicized phrase?

In the sentence: However, some learning the basics about culture and at least something about the language of communication in different countries is important.

What is important? learning (the basics and something) is important or something (about the language) is important?

Linking Words

Knowing the meaning and the purpose of linking words in sentences can be very useful for academic reading. For example, in the following passage there are two linking words:

Because English is not the first language of many international business people, their use of the language may be peppered with culture-specific or non-standard English phrases, which can hamper the communication process. Both Because and which give: consequence – which, between clauses, and reason – Because, between sentences.

The more common linking words can be divided into six main groups according to their purpose.

1. Showing sequence, e.g., finally, firstly, secondly, then, next, after this.

Finally, if language barriers present themselves, it may be in every one's best interest to employ a reliable, experienced translator.

2. Giving additional information, e.g., as well, even, in addition, also, besides this, as well as, and.

Be mindful of time zone differences and work to keep everyone involved aware and respectful of such differences.

3. Giving examples, e.g., for example, such as, for instance, be illustrated by.

For instance, they may observe different holidays, or even have different hours of operation.

4. Giving reasons or causes, e.g., the cause, be the result of, because of this, due to this, be caused by this, because, result from.

Because English is not the first language of many international business people ...

5. Showing contrast, e.g., but, however, though, although, while, despite, even though, whereas, on the other hand.

… We didn't all come over on the same ship, but we're all in the same boat.

Note: Even though the above linking words may be in one group, in sentences, they are often used in different ways.

Section 2. Grammar workout

Errors with prepositions

Errors with prepositions are among the most difficult errors to catch. Preposition use in English is very complex. For every rule, there seems to be an exception. There are many errors involving prepositions, and they are more difficult to spot.

Prepositions are used in the following ways:

In adverbial phrases that show time, place, and other relationships: in the morning, on Central Avenue, to the park, by a student

After certain nouns: a cause of, a reason for, a solution to.

After certain adjectives and participles: different from, aware of, disappointed in.

After certain verbs: combine with, rely on, refer to.

In phrasal prepositions (two- or three-word prepositions): according to, together with, instead of.

In certain set expressions: by far, by and large (in general), at large, on occasion, on and off, at last, to boot, from now on, etc..

There are two main types of preposition errors that you may come across:

Errors in preposition choice

Such errors take place when the wrong preposition is used according to the context of the sentence.

Some of the rules for choosing the correct prepositions are given below, but you will never be able to memorize all the rules for preposition use in English. The more you practice, though, the more you will develop a "feel" for determining which preposition is correct in any given situation.

There are two particular situations involving preposition choice:

Errors with from (here) to (eternity) and between (Scylla) and (Charybdis).

Both these expressions are used to give the starting time/point and ending time/point. They can also be used to show relationships of place and various other relationships. E.g.:

• He lived in Seattle from 1992 to 1997.

• He lived in Seattle between 1992 and 1997.

• Route 66 ran from Chicago to Los Angeles.

• Route 66 ran between Chicago and Los Angeles.

It will be a mistake to say: The highway runs between Simferopol to the port of Yalta, a distance of 60 miles.

The correct pattern is from…to.

Errors usually involve an incorrect pairing of those words, or the incorrect use of other prepositions. E.g.::

between A to В from X and Y

between A with В since X to Y

Errors with since, for, and in

Since is used before a point in time with the present perfect tense—but never with the past tense. For is used before a period of time with the present perfect and other tenses. In is used before certain moments in time (years, centuries, decades) with the past tense and other tenses—but never with the present perfect tense. E.g.:

• He's lived here since 1995.

• He's lived here for two years.

• He moved here in 1995.

Errors involve the use of one of these prepositions for another. E.g.:

He's lived here in 1995.

He's lived here since two years.

He moved here since 1995.

Corn was the population’s main item of food since at least 2,000 years.

Before a period of time (2,000 years) the preposition for should be used.

Errors with on

The pitch of a tuning fork depends of the size and shape of its arms.

The correct preposition after the verb depend is on, not of.