4.4 Data analysis and interpretation

In this section, the data collected by the study will be analyzed and interpreted in relation to the issues connected with learner autonomy. The full list of the learners' responses is to be found in Appendix. As we are, once again, aware of the limits of our study, every response will not be analyzed separately; rather than that, we will – in examining the issues studied – point to general patterns and inspiring ideas. The analysis will be broken up into three parts, examining the factors explored by the study, any factors revealed by the study and summarizing any reactions the students had to a more autonomous learning environment.

4.4.1 Factors explored in the study

Learner confidence

As expected, in reporting on their progress (Item 1), the students showed varying degrees of confidence, ranging from very affirmative statements (Prince Charming), through unclear judgments (Fairy Godmother) to negative statements (Cinderella). Interestingly enough, however, in Item 2, none of the respondents mentioned their ability as a decisive factor in determining their success. This leads us to assume that the overall learner confidence might be rather low in both groups.

Attribution theory (2, 3)

Surprisingly, a great majority of the students who reported they were unsuccessful in their learning (Item 1) ascribed their failure in Item 2 to a lack of effort (Cinderella, Gretel), laziness (Shrek), lack of free time (Gretel) or lack of intrinsic motivation (Robin Hood). This is a promising finding, for all the factors listed above may be easily categorized as internal and changeable. Therefore, these students seem to understand that any future improvement in the language is within their grasp and under their control. Only Puss In Boots ascribes her failure to the level of the group. Although this factor is external, we may categorize it as changeable; therefore, even this student may infer that a change in her progress is under her control.

Categorizing those responses in Item 2 where students reported on their success proved to be much more problematic, and yet more surprising. None of the students mentioned ability (internal, stable) as a determinant of their success, and only one reported on intrinsic motivation as a decisive factor (Fiona). All the other respondents commented on external factors; since they are all course-related, we do not feel the need to sort them into changeable and stable ones. A comprehensive list follows:

- the teachers (Fiona, Pinocchio, Snow White, Prince Charming, Rapunzel)

- the methodology (Snow White, Rapunzel)

- the learning content (Donkey, Hansel, Snow White)

- the learning group (Pinocchio)

- feedback on learning provided in the course (Lord Farquard)

- homework set in the course (Lord Farquard)

- stimulation (task motivation) (Snow White, Rapunzel)

- regularity of the course (Donkey, Fairy Godmother, Prince Charming, Lord Farquard, Rapunzel)

Interpreting these factors along the lines of attribution theory or the wider concept of autonomous learning might be rather tricky. It is true that all of them are perceived as external to the respondents, largely out of their control, and somehow related to the course. On the other hand, in the context of autonomous learning, a lot of these factors (giving feedback, setting work outside the class, allocating time and place for learning, determining the learning content and progressions) have their locus in the learner, not outside of him. However, those answers might also simply signify a positive attitude towards the course (or its components).

On the whole though, we could claim that the students who perceive the regularity of the course as a decisive factor in their learning perceive their learning outside the course as less significant. The student who perceived the learning group as an important factor might be referring to the affective aspects of interdependent learning (low anxiety, stimulation). And finally, those who mentioned methodology might simply be having a positive reaction to a more autonomous environment.

It is clear that interpreting these items one way or another would be suspicious. If we decided that the responses listed above are referring to factors that are external to the learner and out of his control, the results would be alarming – it would mean that in case they are successful, these learners ascribe their success to factors which they cannot change – therefore, their learning does not seem to be of their own making, but rather produced by someone or something else. However, the question was too general and the responses too ambiguous to produce any clear results.

Responses to Item 3, however, seem to support our theory. Those learners who reported their success give much credit to the teachers – "eighty per cent" (Donkey), "ninety-eight per cent" (Rapunzel) or "all the credit" (Fairy Godmother). Moreover, Robin Hood, an unsuccessful student, feels she has not progressed so much mainly owing to the qualities associated with the teacher.

Teacher/learner roles

A brief look at Item 3 already showed the importance some students ascribe to the teacher. A few of the students managed to expand on teacher roles in their responses, supplying us with an already fairly detailed picture. Fairy Godmother sees teachers as those who "force us to study, … give us homework [and] want some results". Robin Hood regards boring teachers as "losers" and their lessons as "worthless"; on the other hand, interesting teachers who bring variety into the lesson "catch [her] attention". These students would probably not be willing to take much responsibility for the progression or the outcome of a lesson. In their view, the role of the teacher is to tell the students what to do, organize their work outside the classroom, supply extrinsic motivation (by demanding results) and make them interested.

On the other hand, Pinocchio offers a rather different picture of teacher roles – they "had to find ways to communicate to us and facilitate our progress – provided we were willing to cooperate". This is very closely reminiscent of Rogers's (1969) idea of teacher as facilitator of learning – one who does not 'teach' (thus directing or controlling the students) but rather gives opportunities for learning. In Pinocchio's terms, a teacher is a skilled communicator and facilitator, and the outcome of the lesson depends largely on the student. It seems wise to assume that learners who share this view of teacher roles would be ready to take a lot of responsibility for their learning, as well as for the progression and outcome of each lesson.

However, it is Items 10 and 11 that focus directly on teacher/learner roles. Responses to the former item – even though they are increasingly complex – may be analyzed along the lines sketched out above. There are items that refer to the teacher as one who is in control of the students' learning, as well as those that characterize him as a facilitator.

Gretel thinks that the teacher should "tell the students the most important points they need to learn or remember from the lesson". Similarly, Lord Farquard believes that a teacher's role is to "determine what and how much [the students] should learn". Clearly, their view of learning has got nothing to do with the 'personal learning' described in our definition of autonomy, or with Rogers's "self-appropriated learning" (1969: 153). These students would probably not determine the contents of their learning. Both Prince Charming and Shrek believe a teacher should give "clear" or "good" explanations. Such students would probably not be ready to discover things for themselves (an issue dealt with in Chapters 2.3 and 3.2). In Snow White's terms, a good teacher is "a strict teacher who makes you learn". Again, this student is unlikely to take active, independent steps towards learning that is done for its own sake (see Chapter 3.1.4). Similarly, Puss In Boots thinks a teacher's role is to "capture the students' attention and force them to work in the lesson". For both Snow White and Puss In Boots, their motivation for studying the language is largely dependent on the teacher who plays a clearly dominant, directive role in the classroom.

On the other hand, some of the students believe the teacher should be "flexible" (Fiona), the students should not be "afraid of him" and he should give them "lots of practice" (Donkey), "grading the level of his language" and being a "colleague" (Lord Farquard), "perceiving their needs and their reactions" (Pinocchio) and having a "positive attitude" to them (Fairy Godmother). This set of beliefs comes very close to the idea of the teacher as facilitator of learning, who gives students opportunities to practice, lowers their affective filter and is able to be flexible, responding to the students' needs.

The survey of learner roles (Item 11) is equally promising. Some students did seem to perceive the learner as a passive recipient of stimuli (see Chapter 3.3); he should "pay attention and not disturb others" (Donkey, Prince Charming), "follow the teacher's instructions [and] pay attention to the lesson" (Lord Farquard), "be able to answer all of the teacher's questions" (Fairy Godmother). In these students' views, a good learner does not necessarily take an active part in the learning process; rather than that, he is an obedient servant listening carefully and responding to instruction. Prince Charming even infers that "the student does not have that much space in the lesson … just during the activities, maybe". Clearly, this respondent does not see a good learner as one who finds personal meaning in a lesson and takes part in organizing and shaping it.

However, in studying other responses, four major patterns connected with autonomous learning emerged. Seven out of the fourteen students – without being prompted in any way – stressed the importance of independent work outside of the classroom (an issue discussed in Chapter 2.3); a student should "work at home a lot" (Donkey) (similar views expressed in Hansel, Fiona, Gretel, Snow White, Pinocchio and Lord Farquard). Gretel even believes that a good learner "finds ways to practice and memorize the language he has acquired in the lesson"; a view which resonates with the Good Language Learner research (Chapter 2.3). Six students believed that a student should be an active participant, "tak[ing] part in the lesson" (Cinderella) (similar views found in Fiona, Puss In Boots, Rapunzel, Snow White and Robin Hood). Fiona even believes that "otherwise, the lesson will never work", and Snow White claims that a good learner "helps create a pleasant atmosphere". Three students view a good learner as one who manages his anxiety (see Oxford 1989), and is thus "not embarrassed" about making mistakes (Pinocchio) (similar views in Gretel and Robin Hood). And finally, one student mentioned the importance of intrinsic motivation in the learning process – a good student should "take interest in learning" (Shrek).

These findings, however insightful they are, might appear rather surprising, when considering our analysis of Item 2. However, one needs to bear in mind that in Item 2, the students reported on their own progress, while in Item 11, they expressed their beliefs about good learners. Therefore, it might be inferred that most of the students do not perceive themselves as good learners; however, their views of good learners necessarily resonate with the idea of an autonomous learner.

Lesson/curriculum planning – active involvement in the learning process

Item 6 assessed the students' ability to take an active role in shaping classroom procedures and learning content (which is a vital part of most descriptions of autonomous learners, as was shown in Chapter 2.3). However, the item would not be reliable for quantitative analysis, because some students might simply like the course as it is, not requiring any changes.

In spite of this objection, the responses presented very interesting results. Three of the students (Shrek, Fairy Godmother and Puss In Boots) reported on their inability to make changes in the lesson procedure or the curriculum. As Puss In Boots says, "I'm not a teacher and I don't know how to make me learn better". We believe these students would probably not be able to reflect on their specific needs and negotiate lesson content and progression with others or with the teacher – characteristics which are embedded in the concept of autonomous learning.

Interestingly enough, all the other students – except for Hansel (who was happy about the course) – demonstrated their ability to negotiate lesson/curriculum changes. Their ideas probably stemmed out of their personal needs for improvement; thus, some learners would prefer more writing (Fiona) or listening (Pinocchio), while others would like to use the video (Cinderella) or songs (Gretel) more. On the other hand, some students required more revision (Donkey, Prince Charming) and one student said that "we should have been forced to work with the workbook; it shouldn't have been left only to us" (Snow White). These views might signify that the learners are unable to find independent ways to practice or that they are unable to approach a study material actively – attitudes they would probably need to change in order to attain a higher degree of autonomy.

Managing anxiety

Item 7 was promising in providing data on learner anxiety and the different ways the students might be dealing with it. Seven out of the fourteen students reported no anxiety at all (Fiona, Prince Charming, Lord Farquard, Puss In Boots, Snow White, Pinocchio and Robin Hood). In the case of the others, their sources of anxiety might be categorized according to the division offered in Skehan:

- comparison with other students – in performance and anxiety levels (Donkey, Hansel)

- relationship to the teacher and his expectations (Shrek, Gretel)

- tests (Cinderella)

- comparison with one's own standards (-)

(Skehan 1989: 116)

This division might be rather sloppy, for some of the factors quite necessarily overlap (e.g. tests and the teacher's expectations). Moreover, our research yielded two other possible sources of anxiety that are very distinct from those offered in Skehan.

Both Fairy Godmother and Rapunzel report on the seating arrangement as a source of anxiety. Fairy Godmother even believes she feels "more confident at a table". These learners might find it stressful to function in a fully communicative environment with the prevalence of pair work and group work. Hansel mentions a personal dislike of another student in the class – an issue hardly ever mentioned in studies of anxiety.

Donkey's account of the way she overcame her anxiety provides a valuable insight into the issue. It shows that some learners are able to identify the source of their anxiety (bad pronunciation), confront it, find own strategies to overcome it ("reading aloud at home") and report on the success or failure of their striving ("it got better towards the end").

Motivation

Chapter 3.1 showed us that motivation is a complex issue. The responses gathered in the interviews point in the same direction.

In assessing the different types of motivation (Item 12), it was found out that the students reported on a range of factors that adhere either to the intrinsic/integrative or extrinsic/instrumental paradigm. The students who said they "had to take the course" (Donkey, Shrek) or that they "need it for [their] job" (Prince Charming, Fairy Godmother, Lord Farquard, Donkey) clearly display the signs of extrinsic motivation. The reasons for studying are external – imposed on them by the requirements of their job or by an institution. Other students, however, claimed that they "do it for [their] own good feeling" (Snow White) or "because [they] enjoy it" (Pinocchio) evidently fall into the intrinsic paradigm, since they are "interested in the learning tasks and learning outcomes for their own sake" (Chapter 3.1.4).

However, there are other reasons that are more difficult to assess. Shrek believes he "might use the language when [he goes] on holiday", Snow White "can help [her] grandchildren learn English" and two students (Lord Farquard and Rapunzel) feel they might become "intellectually stunted" and "forget everything" unless they continue in their studies. Shrek's motivation might be assessed as slightly integrative, but one would not dare compare it to the kind of motivation people have when they start living in a bilingual environment, for instance. Otherwise, the types of motivation cited above seem unfit to belong anywhere in the bipolar extrinsic/intrinsic division. It rather seems that the students find a number of different stimulations for learning the language, and consequently, they find the learning process enjoyable (Snow White), or they merely regard it as a necessary evil on their way towards accomplishing a goal (Gretel).

This theory is supported by a number of responses in Item 14, where the students report on the dimensions of their motivation. Some of the students who stated they were motivated (in Item 13) speak about "enjoyment" in Item 14 (Snow White, Pinocchio); or, alternately, they mention a "great feeling" (Donkey), "great opportunity" (Fiona) or being "personally motivated" (Hansel). This aims towards the intrinsic motivation paradigm – the students seem to love learning for its own sake, finding satisfaction in the learning process rather than seeing it as a necessity. However, other students display distinctly different characteristics.

Rapunzel expands on the different stimulations she has for learning – "I see a film or hear a song which I partly understand, or someone tells me about their holiday, or I go on holiday myself and I'm unable to communicate – these things motivate me to work". This portrays a number of short-term goals or stimulations, for which she finds, however, little intrinsic motivation (as she reports in Item 13). Shrek's responses present a yet more complex picture. Even though he reports on being motivated (in Item 13), in the preceding question, he says: "If I hadn't had to take this course, I probably wouldn't have found the urge to learn." Consequently, in Item 14, he describes the dimensions of his motivation as follows: "When I see something written in English, I don't feel like I'm in China." Therefore, as in Rapunzel's case, his instrumental/extrinsic motivation provides for short-term goals and he himself has little personal investment in the learning process. Similar patterns are found in Lord Farquard, Fairy Godmother and Gretel.

Item 14 also sheds some light on the relationship between motivation and success (studied in Chapter 3.1.3). Cinderella, Gretel and Pinocchio report on success as a factor determining motivation. Pinocchio claims that progress in the language gave her intrinsic motivation to study it; the other two were, on the other hand, demotivated by lack of progress in their study. Lord Farquard and Rapunzel show similar patterns. It is only Snow White who states that her intrinsic motivation led to a greater measure of independent learning – "reading books".

The additional Item C showed sufficient correlations with Item 13, to support the reliability of the students' answers. Only Fairy Godmother showed reluctance to produce an answer in Item 13. Puss In Boot's answer in the additional question seems interesting – rather that being forced to learn (an idea resonant with the 'strict, demanding teacher' as investigated in the issue of teacher/learner roles), she needs to be forced "indirectly"; this suggests a need for stimulation rather than discipline.

Finding opportunities to learn independently

Contrary to our findings in Item 3, a lot of the students reported on a variety of independent learning activities in Item 15. Only Shrek, Fairy Godmother, Gretel, Lord Farquard and Puss In Boots showed a lack of initiative in finding opportunities on their own. Other students gave evidence of a range of activities and learning strategies that they devised independently of formal instruction. Those included reading activities (Fiona, Donkey, Prince Charming, Lord Farquard, Snow White, Rapunzel, Pinocchio, Robin Hood), listening activities (Fiona, Shrek, Cinderella, Hansel, Gretel, Rapunzel, Robin Hood), writing practice (Pinocchio), speaking practice (Hansel, Puss In Boots), working with interactive teaching materials (Fairy Godmother, Fiona) and vocabulary and pronunciation practice (Donkey). Some students reported on their own teaching efforts (Lord Farquard, Snow White in Item 12) and others showed initiative in taking another English course (Hansel, Robin Hood).

A survey of strategies is also promising. In the report on her reading efforts, Donkey says that "it's enough to find a few words in a dictionary and [she is] able to translate it". Also, she keeps a "vocabulary notebook". When speaking of watching films with subtitles, Cinderella infers that "the visual aspect lets you understand what's going on better". In her report on listening to music, Hansel believes that "it's impossible to translate the lyrics, so [she] always [tries] to understand what the song is about, and write down interesting words". Rapunzel buys videotapes which she can "rewind and listen to again". Snow White reads labels on things that she buys and Robin Hood listens to songs and tries to "understand them". Also, she says: "When I see an English text, or some writing on somebody's clothes, I try to understand it". Clearly, these students have a capacity to seek out learning situations and take steps in organizing their learning outside the classroom.

Reflecting on one's progress – the issue of external feedback

It was shown that the issue of tests might be related to the issue of anxiety (see 'Managing anxiety', above) or to the students' apparent inability to provide for feedback on learning on their own (Cotterall 1995; Cotterall 1999). Our research supports both theories.

One needs to bear in mind that additional Item A was a yes/no question, so the students were not directly prompted to disclose their reasons for or against testing. Therefore, both Donkey and Gretel gave straightforward, negative answers. However, others were a little more talkative.

Snow White reports: "I don't like tests – I'm clumsy with tests and I make lots of mistakes because I think about it too much". Obviously, for her, tests are a source of anxiety. Cinderella also reported on tests as stressful in Item 7. Furthermore, Hansel claims that she does not want to have "the worst test in the classroom" – which would, in her case, link test anxiety and anxiety formed by comparison with other students (see 'Managing anxiety', above). This gives slight support to the first of the theories cited above.

A surprisingly high number of the students saw a greater number of tests as positive. Rapunzel states that a test "forces [her] to learn"; similar views are to be found with Pinocchio and Hansel. For them, tests seem to be a source of extrinsic motivation. Shrek, Fairy Godmother and Puss In Boots agree, on the other hand, that tests are exclusive sources of feedback, as the last of the three remarks: "You need to know what mistakes you make, and only a test can tell you this". Shrek even goes so far as to say that "only a test can show you that you do not understand something". Clearly, these students would find it rather difficult to provide feedback to themselves, or to other students; nor would they recognize feedback from others as relevant.

An interesting view is to be found with Robin Hood, who claims that tests help her "remember things better". Evidently, she sees a test as an opportunity for more practice, for she does not "need tests to tell [her how she is] progressing". Snow White expresses a similar opinion – she would prefer to work at home and see her progress for herself.

Beliefs about the learning process – the issue of translation

The issue of translation was, for reasons that were not quite clearly specified, included in Horwitz (1999) and Perclová (2003). Our research aimed to reveal the complexity of views learners hold about translation.

Quite surprisingly, in additional Item B, a majority of the students expressed a dislike of translation. In their answers, they expressed their preference of speaking practice (Fairy Godmother, Hansel and Snow White) or reading practice (Robin Hood). Puss In Boots believed that the only benefit of translation would be in translating articles that are intrinsically motivating.

Those who did hold positive views about translation saw its opportunities in "better practice" (Lord Farquard) or remembering vocabulary (Cinderella). Also, Lord Farquard understands translation as a "complex thing".