Writing research papers Structure, Linguistics and Style
A research paper has physical and structural characteristics. The physical characteristics consist of the title, the introduction, the main body parts and the conclusion.
The title is very important, because the key words in the title help us make a decision whether the paper is of interest for you or not. The title should be relevant to the problem studied, and fit the paper.
The introduction is the assertion we make about the main points of our study. It helps the reader understand clearly what to expect from the rest of the paper.
The body of the paper should provide evidence in support of the thesis sentence, each paragraph explaining only one aspect of the thesis.
The conclusion can be a summary of the introduction and the developmental paragraphs of the body parts. But more importantly it should express our judgment on the research performed and the results obtained.
Structurally, a paper should have unity and coherence. Unity gives the writing single vision, and coherence connects the parts. Our paper has unity when it talks about one topic. Our paper is coherent if all its parts fit together, talk about the same topic, are connected logically and flow smoothly from one to the other.
Task: Write down several titles for your paper, discuss them with your partner and choose the best one.
Think over and write a thesis sentence for your paper. Show it to your partner to figure out what the subject and the reason for your research are.
Grammar notes Revision
Read, translate and define the grammatical problem:
Benjamin Franklin was filled with the spirit of capitalism at a time when his printing business did not differ in form from any handicraft enterprise.
The social evolution has the progressive and directed character.
Despite of essential distinctions between natural and artificial organizations, they are united by general features.
The theory of Tylor, whose authority is always great, still remains.
We pass by problems every day which we do not raise, and of which we have no suspicion until some circumstance makes us feel the necessity of raising them.
We now arrive at that which constitutes the very heart of the doctrine.
There is a logical and psychological gap between the idea of a double at liberty and that of a spirit to which a cult is addressed.
It concerns the transformation of the cult of the dead into the cult of nature. The postulate upon which it rests is also found in certain historians of religion.
The action of an adult in similar circumstances is often as slightly reasonable.
But let us bear in mind what the question is.
We are trying to find out how men came to think that there are in reality two categories of things, radically heterogeneous and incomparable to each other.
It is clear that Australia is the most favourable field for the study of totemism.
This extension of the field of comparison has nothing about it which is not legitimate.
In an industrial society, for example, there is typically more for all than in an agrarian one.
To Mills, power is not a facility for the performance of function in, and on behalf of, the society as a system.
Parsons's method is well illustrated by the entirely abstract character of his typology of modes of securing compliance.
A distinction is made between “inducement” and “power”.
The history of societies shows again and again that structural arrangements are often at first implemented by force or by some other form of definite coercion.
Coercive measures are used to produce and reinforce a new legitimacy.
This process is thought of as a parallel to credit creation in the economy.
Founders of sociology and their thoughts
August
Comte
"The Liberal" |
"Sociology", Positivism Excerpt from Positive Philosophy (1830-42) "The Positive Philosophy offers the only solid basis for that Social Reorganization which must succeed the critical condition in which the most civilized nations are now living.... It alone has been advancing during a course of centuries throughout which the others have been declining. The fact is incontestable. Some may deplore it, but none can destroy it, nor therefore neglect it but under penalty of being betrayed by illusory speculations. This general revolution of the human mind is nearly accomplished. We have only to complete the Positive Philosophy by bringing Social phenomena within its comprehension, and afterward consolidating the whole into one body of homogeneous doctrine. The marked preference which almost all minds, from the highest to the commonest, accord to positive knowledge over vague and mystical conceptions, is a pledge of what the reception of this philosophy will be when it has acquired the only quality that it now wants—a character of due generality. When it has become complete, its supremacy will take place spontaneously. and will reestablish order throughout society." |
Herbert
Spencer
"The Conservative" |
Evolution, "Survival of Fittest" Excerpt from The Principles of Sociology, Vol. 1 (1876) "Society is an organism... It undergoes continuous growth; as it grows, its parts, becoming unlike, exhibit increase of structure; the unlike parts simultaneously assume activities of unlike kinds; these activities are not simply different, but their differences are so related as to make one another possible; the reciprocal aid thus given causes mutual dependence of the parts; and the mutually dependent parts, living by and for one another, form an aggregate constituted on the same general principle as an individual organism. The analogy of a society to an organism becomes still clearer on learning that every organism of appreciable size is a society; and on further learning that in both, the lives of the units continue for some time if the life of the aggregate is suddenly arrested, while if the aggregate is not destroyed by violence its life greatly exceeds in duration the lives of its units. Though the two are contrasted as respectively discrete and concrete, and though there results a difference in the ends subserved by the organization, there does not result a difference in the laws of the organization: the required mutual influences of the parts, not transmissible in a direct way, being transmitted in an indirect way." |
Karl
Marx
"The Radical" |
Class, Revolution, Dialectical Materialism Excerpt from The Communist Manifesto (1848): "The history of all hitherto existing society is the history of class struggles. Freeman and slave, patrician and plebian, lord and serf, guild-master and journeyman, in a word, oppressor and oppressed, stood in constant opposition to one another, carried on an uninterrupted, now hidden, now open fight, a fight that each time ended, either in a revolutionary reconstitution of society at large, or in the common ruin of the contending classes.... It is high time that Communists should openly, in the face of the whole world, publish their views, their aims, their tendencies, and meet this nursery tale of the spectre of communism with a manifesto of the party itself.... In short, the Communists everywhere support every revolutionary movement against the existing social and political order of things. In all these movements, they bring to the front, as the leading question in each, the property question, no matter what its degree of development at the time. Finally, they labor everywhere for the union and agreement of the democratic parties of all countries. The Communists disdain to conceal their views and aims. They openly declare that their ends can be attained only by the forcible overthrow of all existing social conditions. Let the ruling classes tremble at a communist revolution. The proletarians have nothing to lose but their chains. They have a world to win. Working men of all countries, unite!" |
Emile
Durkheim
"The Scientist" |
Social Fact, Anomie Excerpts from The Rules of the Sociological Method (1893) "Before beginning the search for the method appropriate to the study of social facts it is important to know what are the facts termed 'social'. .. When I perform my duties as a brother, a husband or a citizen and carry out the commitments I have entered into, I fulfill obligations which are defined in law and custom and which are external to myself and my actions. Even when they conform to my own sentiments and when I feel their reality within me, that reality does not cease to be objective, for it is not I who have prescribed these duties; I have received them through education... Here, then, is a category of facts which present very special characteristics: they consist of manners of acting, thinking and feeling external to the individual, which are invested with a coercive power by virtue of which they exercise control over him. Consequently, since they consist of representations and actions, they cannot be confused with organic phenomena, nor with psychical phenomena, which have no existence save in and through the individual consciousness. Thus they constitute a new species and to them must be exclusively assigned the term social." |
