Lecture 1

THE EARLY MODERN HISTORY OF EUROPE.

Europe in the age of reformation, religious wars and the economic revolution

Early modern Europe is the term used by historians to refer to a period in the history of Western Europe and its first colonies which spanned the centuries between the end of the Middle Ages and the beginning of the Industrial Revolution, roughly the late 15th century to the late 18th century. The early modern period is often considered to have begun with such events as the invention of moveable type printing in the 1450s, the Fall of Constantinople in 1453, the Voyages of Christopher Columbus beginning in 1492 or the start of the Protestant Reformation in 1517. Its end point is often linked with the outset of the French Revolution in 1789, or with the more nebulous origins of industrialism in late 18th century Britain. As with most periodizations of history, however, the precise dates chosen vary. Some of the more notable events of the early modern period included the Reformation and the religious conflicts it provoked (including the French Wars of Religion and the Thirty Years' War), the European colonization of the Americas and the peak of the European witch-hunt phenomenon.

Rise of protestantism

The seeds of the Reformation (ca. 1500-1650) were sown in the later Middle Ages (ca. 1000-1500), as the Church grew increasingly wealthy and influential. Misgivings developed over zealous violence (namely the imprisonment, torture, and execution of "heretics"), political and economic interference (e.g. Church taxation, restrictions on banking and trade), the vast land holdings and opulent lifestyles of many clergy, and the sale of indulgences (pardons for sin). Additionally, the revival of humanism encouraged critical appraisal of Church claims (see Humanism).

Despite grave personal risk, some religious scholars began to argue that the Bible is the only true religious authority; believers therefore do not require the intermediary of the Church to find salvation, but can do so on their own (by following the teachings of the Bible).1 This position, which would eventually be termed Protestantism, was set forth by various scholars of the later medieval period. At first, Protestant movements remained small and localized; then came the Reformation, during which Protestantism was embraced across much of Western Europe.

Branches of Protestantism

The leading figure of the Reformation was Martin Luther, a priest of northern Germany. The specific form of Protestantism developed by Luther is known as Lutheranism. In 1517, Luther published his Ninety-five Theses, a collection of arguments against various perceived corruptions of the Church, and the most influential document of the Reformation. Thanks to the recently-invented printing press, Luther's writings (including the Ninety-five Theses and his German translation of the Bible) spread across the West in a matter of weeks. Thanks to the expanding middle class (which possessed the time and wealth to become literate and peruse scholarly works), they reached an unprecedented number of people. They were warmly received by the northern German states, which spurred conflict as the Holy Roman Empire attempted to suppress the Protestant movement. Lutheranism also spread (peacefully) across Scandinavia.K196-97,1,5

Lutheranism was one of three major forms of Protestantism that emerged during the Reformation. The second was Calvinism (the "Reformed Church movement), which emerged in Switzerland. John Calvin was a Protestant leader in Reformation France until violent opposition forced him to flee to Geneva, a Swiss state (which became home to many Protestant refugees). There, he became the leading figure of the Reformed Church movement, which he infused with a strict code of conduct (dancing and card-playing, for instance, were outlawed), transforming Geneva into a rigid Protestant theocracy. (After Calvin, these policies were relaxed, and Geneva became a more welcoming place.).

Calvinism spread through parts of Switzerland, as well as the Netherlands and Britain. The adoption of Calvinism in the Netherlands brought about the division of the Low Countries into the Protestant north (now the Netherlands) and the Catholic south (now Belgium). In England, Calvinism developed into Puritanism; in Scotland, Presbyterianism. Calvinism in France (where Calvinists were known as Huguenots), however, was stamped out by the staunchly Catholic French monarchy.

The third major form of Protestantism to emerge from the Reformation was Anglicanism (the Church of England), which can be traced to the infamous Henry VIII. When the pope refused to authorize the king's divorce from his first wife, Henry claimed personal authority over Christianity in England, thereby establishing the Church of England. But Henry did not intend to abandon the doctrine and practices of Roman Catholicism; he persecuted Protestants just as keenly as he did Catholics who continued to recognize the pope's authority.1

Subsequent to Henry's reign, however, the Anglican Church did ultimately become a branch of Protestantism. Puritans were nonetheless unhappy with the Church of England's retention of many Roman Catholic features (e.g. organizational structure, ceremony), and sought to "purify" the Church of England into a wholly Calvinist religion.