1.The main variants of the English language

In Modern linguistics the distinction is made between Standard English and territorial variants and local dialects of the English language.

Standard English may be defined as that form of English which is current and literary, substantially uniform and recognized as acceptable wherever English is spoken or understood. Standard English is the variety most widely accepted and understood either within an English-speak­ing country or throughout the entire English-speaking world.

Variants of English are regional varieties possessing a literary norm. There are distinguished variants existing on the territory of the United Kingdom (British English, Scottish English and Irish English), and is existing outside the British Isles (American English, Canadian English, Australian English, New Zealand English, South African and Indian English).

British English is often referred to the written Standard English and the pronunciation known as Received Pronununciation (RP).

Local dialects are varieties of English peculiar to some districts, s means of oral communication in small localities; they possess normalized literary form.

2 Local dialects in great britain

There are five main groups of local dialects in Great Britain: Northern, Midland, Eastern, Western and Southern. The close links existing between some of the dialects make it possible to unite them into two major groups: 1) Southern dialects and 2) Northern and Midlands dialects.

Careful consideration of the national and the dialect vocabularies discloses that the most marked difference between them lies in the limited character of the dialect vocabularies. The literary language contains many words not to be found in dialects, among them technical and scientific terms.

Local lexical peculiarities, as yet the least studied, are most noticeable in specifically dialectal words pertaining to local customs, social life and natural conditions: laird — ‘landed proprietor in Scotland’, burgh — ‘Scottish chartered” town’, kirk — ‘church’, loch — ‘Scottish lake or landlocked arm of the sea’, etc. There are many names of objects and processes connected with farming, such as the names of agricultural processes, tools, domestic animals and the like, e.g. galloway — ‘horse of small strong breed from Galloway, Scotland’, kyloe — ‘one of small breed of long-horned Scotch cattle’, shelty — ‘Shetland pony’. There is also a considerable number of emotionally coloured dialectal words, e.g. Scot, bonny — ‘beautiful, healthy-looking’, braw — ‘fine, excellent’, daffy — ‘crazy, silly’, cuddy — ‘fool, ass’, loon — ‘clumsy, stupid person’.

In addition, words may have different meanings in the national language and in the local dialects, e.g. in the Scottish dialect the word to call is used in the meaning of ‘to drive’, to set — ‘to suit’, short — ‘rude’, silly — ‘weak’, etc.

Dialectal lexical differences also embrace word-building patterns. For instance, some Irish words contain the diminutive suffixes -an, -een, -can, as in bohaun — ‘cabin’ (from Irish both — ‘cabin’); bohereen — ‘narrow road’ (from Irish bothar — ‘road’); mearacaun — ‘thimble’ (from Irish mear — ‘finger’); etc. Some of these suffixes may even be added to English bases, as in girleen, dogeen, squireen (squirrel), etc. Some specifically dialectal derivatives are formed from standard English stems with the help of standard English affixes, e.g. Scot. flesher — ‘butcher’, suddenty — ’suddenness’.

A great number of words specifically dialectal appeared as a result of intense borrowing from other languages, others are words that have disappeared from the national literary language or become archaic, poetical, such as gang — ‘go’, OE заnзаn; bairn — ‘child’, OE bearn, etc. Thus, the lexical differences between the English national language and its dialects are due to the difference in the spheres of application, different tempoes of development, different contacts with other peoples, and deliberate elaboration of literary norms.

The local dialects in Britain are sharply declining in importance at the present time; they are being obliterated by the literary language. This process is twofold. On the one hand, lexical units of the literary language enter local dialects, ousting some of their words and expressions. On the other hand, dialectal words penetrate into the national literary language. Many frequent words of common use are dialectal in origin, such as girl, one, raid, glamour, etc. Some words from dialects are used as technical terms or professionalisms in the literary language, e.g. the Scotch cuddy — ‘ass’ is used in the meaning of jack-screw and lug — ‘ear’ in the meaning of handle.

Dialect peculiarities (phonetical, grammatical, but mainly lexical) modify in varying degrees the language spoken in different parts of Britain. These speech-forms are called regional variants of the national language and they are gradually replacing the old local dialects. It should be noted that the word dialect is used in two meanings nowadays: to denote the old dialects which are now dying away, and to denote the regional variants, i.e. a literary standard with some features from local dialects.

The most marked difference between dialects and regional variants in the field of phonetics lies in the fact that dialects possess phonemic distinctions, while regional variants are characterised by phonetic distinctions. In matters of vocabulary and grammar the difference is in the greater number and greater diversity of local peculiarities in the dialects as compared with the regional variants.

Cockney.

One of the best known dialects of British English is the dialect of London -Cockney. Some peculiarities of this dialect can be seen m the first act of «Pigmalion» by B. Shaw, such as : interchange of./v/ and /w/ e.g. wery veil; interchange of /f/ and /O/ , /v/ and / /, e. g/ fmg /thing/ and fa:ve / father/; interchange of/h/ and /-/ , e.g. «'eart» for «heart» and «hart» for «art; substituting the diphthong /ai/ by /ei/ e.g. «day» is pronounced /dai/; substituting /au/ by /a:/, e.g. «house» is pronounced /ha:s/,«now« /na:/ ; substituting /ou/ by lo'.l e.g. «don't» is pronounced /do:nt/ or substituting it by / / in unstressed positions, e.g. «window» is pronounced /wind /.

Another feature of Cockney is rhyming slang: «hat» is «tit for tat», «wife» is «trouble and strife», «head» is «loaf of bread» etc. There are also such words as «tanner» /sixpence/, «peckish»/hungry/.

Cockney, in the loosest sense of the word, is a working-class inhabitant of the East End of London. Cockney is also an old rhyming slang dialect, which originated from the East end of London. According to the Oxford English Dictionary the first use of the word in its accepted meaning was in 1521, by a writer Whittington. Cockney speakers have a distinctive accent and dialect, and frequently use Cockney rhyming slang.

Although no one speaks fluent Cockney any more, residents in this area of London still use a lot of words. But many Cockney words have slipped into the English language and are used in everyday speech all over England. The etymology of "Cockney" has long been discussed and disputed. One explanation is that "Cockney" literally means cock's egg, a misshapen egg such as sometimes laid by young hens. During the 1700's the term, used by country folk, was applied to town's folk who were considered ignorant of the established customs and country ways. This term in due course became synonymous with working class Londoners themselves and has now lost its once denigrating qualities. Despite the current definition of a Cockney, to most outsiders a Cockney is anyone from London itself. Natives of London, especially in its East End use the term with respect and pride.

Cockney is lively and witty and its vocabulary - imaginative and colourful. Its specific feature not occurring anywhere else is the so-called rhyming slang, in which some words are substituted by other words rhyming with them. Boots, for instance, are called daisy roots.

Scottish English

Scottish English is taken by some to include Lowland Scots and by others to exclude it. Here Lowland Scots is excluded and only what is known as Scottish Standard English considered. There is a separate article on Scottish Highland English. SSE is the form of the English language used in Scotland. It is normally used in formal, non-fictional written texts in Scotland. Phonetics are in IPA.

Background The standard spelling, grammar, and punctuation tend to follow the style of the Oxford English Dictionary (OED). However, there are some unique characteristics, many of which originate in the country's two autochthonous languages, the Scottish Gaelic language and Lowland Scots. The speech of the middle classes in Scotland often conforms to the grammatical norms of the written standard, particularly in situations that are regarded as formal. Highland English is slightly different from the variety spoken in the lowlands in that it is more phonologically, grammatically, and lexically influenced by a Gaelic substratum.

Lexis

General items are outwith, meaning outside of; pinkie for little finger; doubt meaning to think or suspect; and wee, the Scots word for small. Correct is often preferred to right meaning morally right or just, as opposed to just factually accurate. Culturally specific items like caber, haggis, and landward for rural.There is a wide range of (often anglicised) legal and administrative vocabulary inherited fromScots, depute / for deputy, proven / for proved, and sheriff substitute for acting sheriff

Syntax

Syntactical differences are few though in colloquial speech shall and ought are wanting, must is marginal for obligation and may is rare. Many syntactical features of SSE are found in Standard American English:• Can I come too? for "May I come too?"• Have you got any? for "Do you have any?"• Tve got one of those already, for "I have one of those already."• It's your shot for "It's your turn"

Stress

Many words have different stress than in RP. Porpoise and tortoise have equal stress on each syllable. In the following the main stress in on the final syllable: advertise, baptize, realize and recognize etc. The following have the main stress on the second syllable: lamentable and preferably

Grammar

The grammar of SSE is much the same as standard English but SSE is influenced by Scots grammar and idiom to varying degrees. SSE has a range of legal vocabulary not present in standard English. This is often anglicized versions of Scots vocabulary. The following are common examples of how Scots grammar influences SSE: The Scots use of modal verbs i.e. many speakers do not use 'shall' and 'may' and use would instead of 'should'. Might and will maybe are used for possibility and have (got) for compulsion. Need to, use to and dare to are used as main verbs. Need may occur in the passive, and is also used non-progressively as is want. The verb have is used more like an auxiliary.

SSE Anglo English

Will I see you after? Shall I see you later?

Can I come as well? May l come as well?

He might come later. He may come later.

Hell maybe come later. He may come later.

The passive is usually expressed with get i.e. I got told off. Some verbs are used progressively:

SSE Anglo Engfish

He was thinking he'd get more pay. He though the would get more pay.

I was hoping to see him. I hoped to see him

They were meaning to come. They meant to come

A well known marker of SSE is the use of not rather than '-n't':

SSE Anglo English

He’ll not come. He won't come.

Your’re not wanted. You aren't wanted.

Is he not coming? Isn’t he coming?

Verbs of motion are often elided before adverbs of motion: I'll away home then. and The cat wants out. etc. The is used as in Scots i.e. To take the cold. To get sent to the hospital. To go to the church. Non-reflexive use of the pronoun self i.e. How's yourself today? and Is himself in? etc. Anybody, everybody, nobody and somebody are used in preference to anyone, everyone, no one and someone. Yet may occur with non-perfective forms of the verb:

SSE Anglo English

Did you buy one yet? Have you bought one yet? He is here yet. He is still here.