5. Nouns: categories and subclasses. The article and the problem of reference. Elements of the reference theory.

The noun is a part of speech with the categorical meaning of substance, thingness. It is the main nominative part of the language, which possesses a strongest power of nomination, because by means of the noun even a property or an action can be presented as a substance (bitterness, evacuation). Also combinability and function.

According to their semantic properties, nouns can be classified in a most rigorous and rough way into four + 1 oppositional pairs:

1. Based on the type of nomination, nouns are classified into:

1) proper nouns;

2) common nouns.

2. Form of existence:

1) animate;

2) inanimate.

3. Personal quality:

1) human;

2) non-human.

4. Quantitative structure:

1) countable;

2) uncountable.

Less rigorously expressed:

5. Degree of abstraction:

1) concrete;

2) abstract.

Problems of article:

1) whether it is an analytical morpheme or a part of speech;

2) the number of articles.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Causal_theory_of_reference

6. Adjectives: categories and subclasses.

Adj. is a part of speech with the categorical meaning of feature, property or state of substance irrespective of the course of time, that is without development in time.

The main role of the adjective is that of a noun determiner, but it can also act as a predicative; some adjectives characterised by complementive combinability with nouns via prepositions (fond of, suspicious of, interested in, thankful to, etc.).

According to their semantic characteristics, Adjectives have traditionally been divided into relative and qualitative ones.

Relative adjectives are those that reveal the relation of some substance to some other sort of substance. For example, wooden – made of wood, medieval – belonging to the Middle Ages, philosophical – concerned with philosophy. As a general rule, frames of the type “rather a…”, as well as degrees of comparison are not applicable to this category of adjectives.

On the contrary, qualitative adjectives denote a property of substance that extends to a certain degree. That is why various intensifiers can modify them: rose is the most beautiful of flowers.

Yet, there are some contradictions that make this division clumsy and inconsistent. Firstly, collocations like “rather a philosophical question” or “the most orthodox point of view” are quite possible. On the other hand, there exists a group of qualitative adjectives that denote the absolute, terminative degree of a quality. It’s absurd to say “less blind”.

For this reason another classification was introduced. It divides adjectives into evaluative and specificative ones (or, in other terms, descriptive and limitive adjectives). The principle in the basis of this division is the role of the adjective with respect to the nouns.

Henry Sweet proposed to classify adjective into attributive (a great man) and qualifying (great stupidity) ones.

Crystal distinguished peripheral and central adjectives depending on the functions they are capable of performing in a sentence. While central adjectives can play all possible parts (He bought some green apples. These apples are green. They painted the door green), peripheral ones are only associated with some of them (It was sheer scandal, so complete and utter love, mere 5% of women are heads).

Maslennikova:

1) specifying – few synonyms and practically no grading; inherent properties of substance (wooden, wild, economic, etc.);

2) characterizing – fit into the scheme “There is something … in”, i.e. grading and intensification are possible;

3) relational: evaluation/attitude. These show evaluation/attitude:

a) relational proper;

b) subject relational;

c) causal;

d) modal.