5.Translate into English. Are the verb forms equal? What is preferable in formal and informal speech?

Он взглянул на часы, как будто торопился. Если бы были какие-то новости, мы бы с тобой связались. Мне бы очень хотелось, чтобы мой сын поступил в университет. Если бы не внезапная болезнь, он бы мог принять участие в соревнованиях. Жаль, что она так рано ушла. Если бы я был на твоем месте, я бы сказал правду. Если бы только сейчас не шел дождь. Я покажу тебе дорогу, чтобы ты не заблудился. Мы предложили, чтобы резолюция была обсуждена по пунктам. Желательно, чтобы конференция была перенесена на следующую неделю. Странно, что они не говорят сейчас по-английски. Было бы глупо с твоей стороны отказаться от этого предложения. Если бы он вел машину осторожнее, несчастного случая не произошло бы. Она обращалась с ним так, как будто он был ребенком. Хорошо, что мы взяли такси; иначе мы бы опоздали на поезд.

Revision tasks for self-controlWhat does the grammatical category of mood express?What actions do categorial forms of Indicative, Imperative, Subjunctive represent?Give account of synthetical and analytical forms expressing unreality in English.What features of the context are important for the use of the Subjunctive mood? Do verb forms in the Subjunctive show time relationships?Is ‘unreality’ semantically varied in English? Outline its semantic domain.

TOPIC 4: Syntactic Domain of Grammar

4.1.General remarks on syntactic problems. Morphology is focused on the grammatical form of a word with its categorial features as a part of speech. However, the word itself cannot function alone in a discourse. Being changed grammatically, word-forms are syntagmatically arranged in order to make up a word-phrase and ultimately a sentence as a communicative unit having a certain communicative purpose in a text. Hence, grammatical studies are enlarged by syntax branched as Minor Syntax studying a word-phrase, and Hyper Syntax studying a sentence and a text. Syntactic research is relevant to a number of issues, among them:syntactic connections (relations) and means of their expression in a phrase and a sentence; forms of predication specifying sentence as a predicative syntactic unit; classifying classes of different syntactic units (word-phrase, sentence, text).The syntactic aspect of English presented in terms of the given problems characterizes respectively the syntactic constants of the syntactic level:

syntactic relations;

syntactic connections;

syntactic means;

syntactic units;

predication or predicative centre.

4.2. Syntagmatic connections in word-groups: types of syntactic relations.

Syntactic relations constitute a universal feature and are realized depending on the level of a word-phrase and a sentence. Word-forms having grammatical distinctions form various syntagmatic groupings based on dominational and equipotent connection. Domination is constructed in such a way that finds its realization in the two types: one-way domination and two-way domination. In the one-way domination one constituent is principal, dominating, called a head-word, the other is subordinate, dominated, called an adjunct-word. This structure forms syntactic relations of subordination which falls into the two main divisions:

• objective subordinate connections;

• qualifying subordinate connections.

The first unites the process with the object – direct (e.g. visit a friend, make a call, attended the conference, answer a question) or indirect (e.g. gave him a gift, will write a letter to a friend, explained the rule to me, brings books for the sister). Qualifying connections are of attributive and adverbial type. Attributive connections unite a thing with its attribute either restrictive (e.g. an interesting story, a pretty girl, an exciting trip) or non-restrictive (e.g. a young woman, a ten-dollar-note, a wooden box, a blue colour). Adverbial connection is established between the process and its modifiers or adverbial modifiers such as time, place, manner, intensity, result, reason (e.g. is held tomorrow, arrived at the airport, sings beautifully, terribly interesting, too young to smoke, delayed because of the weather). So subordinate relations build up word-groups as secondary parts of the sentence which are otherwise called complements represented by attributes as noun complements, object and adverbial modifiers as verb complements.

The bilateral or two-way domination creates a predicative connection of words occupying the position of subject and predicate by forming predicative syntactic relations, which occur between the process including action, state, feeling and its subject either personal or impersonal (e.g. he is running, they live, we have admired, it rained, it is interesting). Thus predicative relations make up the predication consisting of the principal parts of sentence: subject and predicate and are of the subtypes: Primary Predicative Relations and Secondary Predicative Relations. Primary predication finds its realization in the position of subject and predicate in two-member sentences. Secondary predicative relations are formed by verbals inside infinitival, participial and gerundial complexes: e.g. the nominative absolute participle construction (e.g. We could not go on with the work all the figures being checked. I had to ask for further details, some particulars missing); the objective and subjective with the infinitive/participle constructions (e.g. I want him to study Arts. He is reported to have made a speech at the conference. I saw her crying. They were heard laughing); gerundial complexes (e.g. We insisted on taking the exam on Monday. Can we rely on your assistant’s doing it? It’s no use their complaining about it.)

The third syntagmatic grouping of words is constituted by word-forms related to one another on an equal rank, making up so called equipotent or coordinative combinations. It means that domination is missing and words occupy syntactically equal positions which are expressed either syndetically with conjunctions, prepositions, or asyndetically with punctuation, word order, intonation: e.g. kept silent and listened; met but had no talk; playing, chatting, laughing.

Subordinate, predicative, coordinate syntactic relations determine distinguishing three types of word-phrases:

subordinate phrases as binary structures in which one of its constituents is syntactically the leading element originating such subordinate relations as objective, attributive and adverbial modifying;

subject and predicate, being explicit or implicit, are united by predicative relations which form predicative phrases;

coordinate syntactic relations build up together immediate constituents of coordinate phrases consisting of two or more syntactically equivalent homogeneous elements.

4.3.Syntactic relations and ways of their expression. So words are syntagmatically connected by the grammatical syntactical relations which have grammatical means of expression in a word-phrase and the sentence in general. Rigid word order in English serves as a basic means of indicating commonly syntactic relation in the structure. Due to the scarcity of morphological devices, English has developed a fixed word order which in most cases shows without fail the syntactic position of a word in a syntactic unit. That is why, in the English sentence the following rules are observed:

the subject precedes the predicate;

the noun is modified by the preceding attribute;

the object follows the predicate;

the adverbial modifier begins the sentence or stands at the end of it;

homogeneous members follow each other.

Word order combined with intonation serves as a means of indicating the logical centre of the sentence, highlighting the syntactic status of its constituents. Syntactic relations may be also indicated by structural words, special connectors (prepositions or conjunctions): e.g. ‘Peter and Mary’ – shows the connecting conjunction ‘and’; ‘the owner of the house’ – the connection preposition ‘of’; the relations between ‘the children were laughing merrily’ are indicated not only by the order of the respective positions but also by inflexions – the agreement of their grammatical forms in person and plural. Above all, a specific function is performed by agreement (or concord) based on formal correspondence between members of a syntactic group in person and number (e.g. this book – these books/that, those); the predicate must agree with the subject in person and number as well (e.g. radio and television have changed; the butter is; either Tom or Harry is coming; there is plenty of time; the police were); government based on changes when traditionally the object is to take the form required by the governing element, normally, a verb or a preposition (e.g. I saw him. I am his brother. We rely on them. He is John’s father) and adjoinment based on the adjoining position of two words joined by the common grammatical function and meaning (e.g. a nice story, the country, rapidly recovered, valuable natural resources).

To summarize, relevant features concern not only types of syntactic relations between members of syntactic groups, but also ways of their expression which do exist with different degree of their realization such as: word order, function words, agreement, government, adjoinment, punctuation and intonation.

Key words:

categorial features as part of speech категориальные признаки как части речи

word-forms слово-формы

syntagmatically arranganged синтагматически построены

word-phrase слово-фраза

sentence as a communicative unit предложение как коммуникативная единица

communicative purpose коммуникативная целеустановка

Minor Syntax Малый Синтаксис

Hyper Syntax Гиперсинтаксис

syntactic connection синтаксическая связь

syntactic relations синтаксические отношения

means of expression средства выражения

forms of predication формы предикации

sentence as a predicative syntactic unit предложение как предикативная синтаксическая единица

syntactic unit синтаксическая единица

syntactic constants of the syntactic level синтаксические константы синтаксического уровня

syntactic means синтаксические средства связи

predication\predicative centre предикация, предикативность\предикативный центр

syntagmatic connections синтагматическая связь

types of syntactic relations типы синтаксических отношений

syntagmatic groupings синтагматически связанная группа слов

dominational connection синтаксическая связь с подчинением

equipotent connection синтаксическая связь с эквивалентностью

one-way domination односторонняя подчинительная связь

two-way domination двусторонняя подчинительная связь

principal\dominating главный\определяющий зависимость

head-word главное слово

subordinate\dominated подчиненный\зависимый

adjunct-word слово-адьюнкт\зависимое

subordination подчинение

objective subordinate connections объектная подчинительная связь

qualifying subordinate connections квалификативная подчинительная связь

direct object прямой объект

indirect object непрямой\косвенный объект

attributive type аттрибутивный тип

adverbial type адвербиальный тип

attribute restrictive определение ограничительное

аttribute non-restrictive определение неограничительное

adverbial modifier обстоятельство

subordinate relations подчинительные отношения

secondary parts of sentence второстепенные члены предложения

noun complements комплименты существительного

verb complements комплименты глагола

bilateral\two-way domination двусторонняя подчинительная связь

predicative connection предикативная связь

predicative syntactic relations предикативные синтаксические отношения

subject personal подлежащее личное

subject impersonal подлежащее безличное

predication предикация\предикативность

principal parts of sentence главные члены предложения

Primary Predicative Relations предикативные отношения первичного уровня

Secondary Predicative Relations предикативные отношения вторичного уровня

two-member sentence двусоставное предложение

equipotent\coordinative connections сочинительная связь на основе синтаксической эквивалентности

syntactically equal positions синтаксически эквивалентные позиции

syndetically expressed союзно формально выраженная связь

asyndetically expressed бессоюзная связь

coordinate syntactic relations сочинительные синтаксические отношения

subordinate phrases фразы с подчинением

objective subordinate relations объектные подчинительные отношения

attributive subordinate relations атрибутивные подчинительные отношения

adverbial modifying subordinate relations обстоятельственные подчинительные отношения

subject подлежащее

predicate сказуемое

explicit эксплицитное\формально выраженное как подлежащее или сказуемое

implicit имплицитное\не выраженное как подлежащее или сказуемое

predicative relations предикативные отношения

predicative phrases предикативные фразы

coordinate syntactic relations сочинительные синтаксические отношения

coordinate phrases фразы с сочинением

homogeneous однородные

grammatical means of expression грамматические средства выражения синтаксических отношений

rigid\fixed word order фиксированный порядок слов

agreement of grammatical forms\concord согласование грамматических форм

government управление

adjoinment примыкание

Practical assignments