1)Essence and subject of politics.

Essence of political science

Government

Politician

Political power

A Government is the organization or agency through which a political unit exercises its authority, controls and administers public policy, and directs and controls the actions of its members or subjects.

Typically, the term "government" refers to a civil government or sovereign state which can be either local, national, or international. However, commercial, academic, religious, or other formal organizations are also governed by internal bodies. Such bodies may be called boards of directors, managers, or governors or they may be known as the administration (as in schools) or councils of elders (as in churches). The size of governments can vary by region or purpose.(цель,замысел)

Growth of an organization advances the complexity of its government, therefore small towns or small-to-medium privately-operated enterprises will have fewer officials than typically larger organizations such as multinational corporations which tend to have multiple interlocking (взаимосвязанные), hierarchical(иерархический) layers of administration and governance. As complexity increases and the nature of governance becomes more complicated, so does the need for formal policies and procedures.

A politician or political leader (from Greek "polis") is an individual who is involved in influencing public decision making. This includes people who hold decision-making positions in government, and people who seek those positions, whether by means of election, coup d'état, appointment, electoral fraud, conquest, right of inheritance (see also: divine right) or other means. Politics is not limited to governance through public office. Political offices may also be held in corporations, and other entities that are governed by self-defined political processes.

Political power is a type of power held by a group in a society which allows administration of some or all of public resources, including labour, and wealth. There are many ways to obtain possession of such power. At the nation-state level political legitimacy for political power is held by the representatives of national sovereignty. Political powers are not limited to heads of states, however the extent to which a person or group such as an insurgency, terrorist group, or multinational corporation possesses such power is related to the amount of societal influence they can wield, formally or informally. In many cases this influence is not contained within a single state and it refers to international power.

2) ‘Politics is not a science ... but an art’, Chancellor Bismarck is reputed (общее мнение, репутация) to have told the German Reichstag. The art Bismarck had in mind was the art of government, the exercise of control within society through the making and enforcement (принуждение) of collective decisions. This is perhaps the classical definition of politics, developed from the original meaning of the term in Ancient Greece. The word ‘politics’ is derived( извлечен) from polis, meaning literally city-state. Ancient Greek society was divided into a collection of independent city-states, each of which possessed its own system of government. The largest and most influential of these city-states was Athens, often portrayed(изображать) as the cradle(колыбель) of democratic government. In this light, politics can be understood to refer to the affairs of the polis(полис, город-государство (в Древней Греции) – in effect, ‘what concerns the polis’. The modern form of this definition is therefore ‘what concerns the state’ .

In many ways, the notion that politics amounts to ‘what concerns the state’ is the traditional view of the discipline, reflected in the tendency for academic study to focus upon the personnel and machinery of government. To study politics is in essence to study government, or, more broadly, to study the exercise of authority. This view is advanced in the writings of the influential US political scientist David Easton (1979, 1981), who defined politics as the ‘authoritative allocation of values’. By this he meant that politics encompasses the various processes through which government responds to pressures from the larger society, in particular by allocating benefits, rewards or penalties. ‘Authoritative values’ are therefore ones that are widely accepted in society, and are considered binding by the mass of citizens. In this view, politics is associated with ‘policy’: that is, with formal or authoritative decisions that establish a plan of action for the community.

3) Aristotle about politics as the ‘master science’.

Aristotle called the study of politics "the master science." Human beings live in communities governed by rules that affect their commerce, their rights, and their personal levels of well-being. Students who become political science majors will learn about who creates the rules by which people are governed, the attitude and behavior of leaders and members of the public which cause certain decisions to be made, and how these decisions affect such values as liberty, equality, welfare and justice.

Political science is concerned with contemporary public affairs, problems in other political systems and contemporary international politics, as well as with historical growth, evolution, and decline of various types of governments. Our majors are encouraged to investigate the diversity of political institutions and practices cross-nationally, and to consider the changes occurring as a result of the increasing globalization of politics and problems.

Aristotle has claimed that political science “determines which of the sciences should be in the communities, and which of the sciences should be in the communities, and which kind individuals are to learn, and what degree of proficiency is to be required.” Based upon this claim, he has placed many studies of human action under this theory of political science. 

Due to the extreme technological society which we live in today, many individuals may be torn between agreement and disagreement with Aristotle’s view. Specialty scientists and technological experts can become so involved with their new advances, they not be on the same level as political scientists, which can cause conflict among the two. Aristotle’s theory behind political science has claimed that it is above all other sciences, combining them all to benefit the society in whole. It studies all human actions to determine the good life for all. Although these new technological advances may be aimed at achieving a good means or goal, the benefits to society may become overlooked. Specialists may try to convince the public that these advances are what society needs for a good life, when in actuality, may become harmful to society.

4. Hannah Arendt (1906–75)

German political theorist and philosopher. Hannah Arendt was brought up in a

middle-class Jewish family. She fled Germany in 1933 to escape from Nazism, and

finally settled in the USA, where her major work was produced. Her wide-ranging,

even idiosyncratic, writing was influenced by the existentialism of Heidegger (1889–

1976) and Jaspers (1883–1969); she described it as ‘thinking without barriers’. Her

major works include The Origins of Totalitarianism (1951), which drew parallels

between Nazi Germany and Stalinist Russia, her major philosophical work The Human

Condition (1958), On Revolution (1963) and Eichmann in Jerusalem (1963). The final

work stimulated particular controversy because it stressed the ‘banality of evil’, by

portraying Eichmann as a Nazi functionary rather than as a raving ideologue.

Arendt maintains that the legitimacy of power is derived from the initial getting together of people, that is, from the original pact of association that establishes a political community, and is reaffirmed whenever individuals act in concert through the medium of speech and persuasion. For her “power needs no justification, being inherent in the very existence of political communities; what it does need is legitimacy ... Power springs up whenever people get together and act in concert, but it derives its legitimacy from the initial getting together rather than from any action that then may follow” (CR, 151).

Beyond appealing to the past, power also relies for its continued legitimacy on the rationally binding commitments that arise out of a process of free and undistorted communication. Because of this, power is highly independent of material factors: it is sustained not by economic, bureaucratic or military means, but by the power of common convictions that result from a process of fair and unconstrained deliberation.

5. Politics as compromise and consensus

The third conception of politics relates not to the arena within which politics is

conducted but to the way in which decisions are made. Specifically, politics is

seen as a particular means of resolving conflict: that is, by compromise, conciliation

and negotiation, rather than through force and naked power. This is what

is implied when politics is portrayed as ‘the art of the possible’. Such a definition

is inherent in the everyday use of the term. For instance, the description of a

solution to a problem as a ‘political’ solution implies peaceful debate and arbitration,

as opposed to what is often called a ‘military’ solution. Once again, this

view of politics has been traced back to the writings of Aristotle and, in particular,

to his belief that what he called ‘polity’ is the ideal system of government, as

it is ‘mixed’, in the sense that it combines both aristocratic and democratic

features. One of the leading modern exponents of this view is Bernard Crick. In

his classic study In Defence of Politics, Crick offered the following definition:

Politics [is] the activity by which differing interests within a given unit of rule

are conciliated by giving them a share in power in proportion to their importance

to the welfare and the survival of the whole community. (Crick, [1962]

2000)

In this view, the key to politics is therefore a wide dispersal of power. Accepting that

conflict is inevitable, Crick argued that when social groups and interests possess

power they must be conciliated; they cannot merely be crushed. This is why he

portrayed politics as ‘that solution to the problem of order which chooses conciliation

rather than violence and coercion’. Such a view of politics reflects a deep

commitment to liberal–rationalist principles. It is based on resolute faith in the

efficacy of debate and discussion, as well as on the belief that society is characterized

by consensus, rather than by irreconcilable conflict. In other words, the

disagreements that exist can be resolved without resort to intimidation and

violence. Critics, however, point out that Crick’s conception of politics is heavily

biased towards the form of politics that takes place in western pluralist democracies:

in effect, he equated politics with electoral choice and party competition. As a

result, his model has little to tell us about, say, one-party states or military regimes.

This view of politics has an unmistakeably positive character. Politics is

certainly no utopian solution (compromise means that concessions are made by

all sides, leaving no one perfectly satisfied), but it is undoubtedly preferable to

the alternatives: bloodshed and brutality. In this sense, politics can be seen as a

civilized and civilizing force. People should be encouraged to respect politics as

an activity, and should be prepared to engage in the political life of their own

community. Never theless, a failure to understand that politics as a process of

compromise and reconciliation is neccessarily frustrating and difficult (because

in involves listening carefully to the opinions of others) may have contributed to

a growing popular disenchantment with democratic politics across much of the

developed world. As Stoker (2006) put it, ‘Politics is designed to disappoint’; its

outcomes are ‘often messy, ambiguous and never final’. This is an issue to which

we will return in the final chapter of the book.

Consensus

Consensus means agreement, but it refers to an agreement of a particular kind. It implies, first, a broad agreement,

the terms of which are accepted by a wide range of individuals or groups. Second, it implies an agreement about fundamental or underlying principles, as opposed to a precise or exact agreement. In other words, a consensus permits disagreement on matters of emphasis or detail. A procedural consensus is a willingness to make decisions

through a process of consultation and bargaining. A substantive consensus is an overlap of ideological positions

that reflect agreement about broad policy goals.

STUDYING POLITICS

Approaches to the study of politics

Disagreement about the nature of political activity is matched by controversy

about the nature of politics as an academic discipline. One of the most ancient

spheres of intellectual enquiry, politics was originally seen as an arm of philosophy,

history or law. Its central purpose was to uncover the principles on which

human society should be based. From the late nineteenth century onwards,

however, this philosophical emphasis was gradually displaced by an attempt to

turn politics into a scientific discipline. The high point of this development was

reached in the 1950s and 1960s with an open rejection of the earlier tradition

as meaningless metaphysics. Since then, however, enthusiasm for a strict

science of politics has waned, and there has been a renewed recognition of the

enduring importance of political values and normative theories. If the ‘traditional’

search for universal values acceptable to everyone has largely been abandoned,

so has been the insistence that science alone provides a means of

disclosing truth. The resulting discipline is more fertile and more exciting,

precisely because it embraces a range of theoretical approaches and a variety of

schools of analysis.

6.The philosophical tradition

The origins of political analysis date back to Ancient Greece and a tradition

usually referred to as ‘political philosophy’. This involved a preoccupation with

essentially ethical, prescriptive or normative questions, reflecting a concern with

what ‘should’, ‘ought’ or ‘must’ be brought about, rather than with what ‘is’. Plato

and Aristotle are usually identified as the founding fathers of this tradition. Their

ideas resurfaced in the writings of medieval theorists such as Augustine (354–430)

and Aquinas (1225–74). The central theme of Plato’s work, for instance, was an

attempt to describe the nature of the ideal society, which in his view took the form

of a benign dictatorship dominated by a class of philosopher kings.

Such writings have formed the basis of what is called the ‘traditional’

approach to politics. This involves the analytical study of ideas and doctrines

that have been central to political thought. Most commonly, it has taken the

form of a history of political thought that focuses on a collection of ‘major’

thinkers (that spans, for instance, Plato to Marx) and a canon of ‘classic’ texts.

This approach has the character of literary analysis: it is interested primarily in

examining what major thinkers said, how they developed or justified their views,

and the intellectual context within which they worked. Although such analysis

may be carried out critically and scrupulously, it cannot be objective in any

scientific sense, as it deals with normative questions such as ‘Why should I obey

the state?’, ‘How should rewards be distributed distributed?’ and ‘What should the limits of

individual freedom be?’

CONCEPT

Normative: The prescription of values and standards of conduct; what ‘should be’ rather

than what ‘is’.

Objective: External to the observer, demonstrable;

7. The empirical approach to political analysis. The scientific method, in which findings are based on objective, systematic observation and verified through public inspection of methods and results, is the dominant methodological approach in political science. The ultimate goal of science, which is not always attained, is to use verifiable results to construct causal theories that explain why phenomena behave the way they do. Scientific knowledge exhibits several characteristics, nine of which are particularly noteworthy:  Science depends on empirical verification to confirm that statements are true through objective observation. Statements or hypotheses must be falsifiable, meaning that the statements or hypotheses can be refuted through contravening empirical evidence. Scientific knowledge must be transmissible—the methods used in making scientific discoveries must be made explicit so that others can analyze and replicate findings. Scientific knowledge is cumulative because scientists build upon the research techniques and results of previous work in advancing the scientific enterprise. Science summarizes relationships between two or more individual facts through the use of empirical generalization. Scientific knowledge is explanatory because it answers “why” and “how” questions through a logically derived set of propositions about the relationship between two or more components. Causal relationships, more so than correlation, are especially important in establishing informative and useful explanations of political phenomena. Science seeks to explain through the power of prediction by offering systematic, reasoned anticipation of future events, that once confirmed, provide evidence that the scientific knowledge responsible for generating the prediction is correct. Most scientists accept probabilistic explanation—that 100-percent accuracy in prediction is not necessary to understand a phenomenon. Science relies on parsimony, or simplicity and elegance, to choose between alternate explanations. The explanation that explains the most about a phenomenon with the fewest parameters will be preferred. 8. The contribution of K. Marx to the scientific tradition. The first scientist who described politics in scientific turns was Karl Marx. He used his so called materialist conception of history. Marx developed a theory which is both scientific and critical. The theory of Marx has been playing such a revolutionary role throughout the historical epoch of human emancipation from alienated labor. It has been and still is the theoretical basis for every contemporary form of active and militant humanism. The critical thought of Marx is the fullest and, historically, the most developed expression of human rationality. It contains, in a dialectically superseded form, the essence of ancient Greek theoria: a rational knowledge of the world’s structure, with which man can change the world and determine his own life. Hegel’s dialectical reasoning is already a creative negation of the Greek notion of ratio and theory, in which the contradictions between static, rational thinking and irrational dynamics, between positive assertion and abstract negation are superseded (aufgehoben). The theory and method of Marx is a decisive step further in the process of totalization and concretization of dialectical reasoning: it embraces not only change in general but also, in particular, the human, historical form of change: praxis. The dialectic of Marx raises the question of rationality, and not only the rationality of the individual, but also that of society as a whole, not only rationality within a given closed system, but also that of the system’s very limits, not only rationality of praxis as thinking but also of praxis as material activity, as a mode of real life, in space and time. There is dialectical reasoning in history only in the extent to which it creates a reasonable reality.

9. D. Easton about politics as the 'authoritative allocation of values'. David Easton, another modern political scientist, defines "politics" as the authoritative allocation by the political system of values for society. Easton, in A Framework for Political Analysis, uses the term "political system" to designate the pattern or system of human inter- actions and relationships in any political society through which authoritative allocations are made and implemented--allocations that are binding on all members of the society and are recognized as such by the great majority of the members. Easton defines a society's political system as "those patterns of interaction through which values are allocated for a society and these allocations are accepted as authoritative by most persons in the society most of the time." Allocating society's values and obtaining widespread acceptance within the society of the authoritative, or binding, nature of the allocations, according to Easton, constitute the basic functions of any political society. By the word "value," Easton means any soughtafter value in life. A value is any object, activity, idea, principle, goal, or other phenomenon upon which large numbers of people place appreciable value, something which is considered by many individuals and groups within the political community to be good, desirable, attractive, useful, rewarding, beneficial, or advantageous. One set of values may be tangible, or material, in form--i.e., in the form of money, property, and/or other economic goods, services, and conditions. Another set of values may be intangible; that is, the values may be symbolic, ideological, cultural, ethical, moral, or religious in character. Examples of intangible values in contemporary American politics include the expressed goals of political activists who assert that they are concerned primarily with "social" or "family" issues, that they seek mainly to promote and defend "social" or "family" values.

10. Recent theoretical approach to politics, economic theory and procedural rules

Because political science is essentially a study of human behavior, in all aspects of politics, observations in controlled environments are often challenging to reproduce or duplicate, though experimental methods are increasingly common (see experimental political science). Citing this difficulty, former American Political Science Association President Lawrence Lowell once said "We are limited by the impossibility of experiment. Politics is an observational, not an experimental science." Because of this, political scientists have historically observed political elites, institutions, and individual or group behavior in order to identify patterns, draw generalizations, and build theories of politics.

Like all social sciences, political science faces the difficulty of observing human actors that can only be partially observed and who have the capacity for making conscious choices unlike other subjects such as non-human organisms in biology or inanimate objects as in physics. Despite the complexities, contemporary political science has progressed by adopting a variety of methods and theoretical approaches to understanding politics and methodological pluralism is a defining feature of contemporary political science. Often in contrast with national media, political science scholars seek to compile long-term data and research on the impact of political issues, producing in-depth articles breaking down the issues.

In 1955 Gary Stanley Becker wrote his doctoral dissertation at the University of Chicago on the economics of discrimination. Among other things, Becker successfully challenged the Marxist view that discrimination helps the person who discriminates. Becker pointed out that if an employer refuses to hire a productive worker simply because of skin color, that employer loses out on a valuable opportunity. In short, discrimination is costly to the person who discriminates.

Becker showed that discrimination will be less pervasive in more competitive industries because companies that discriminate will lose market share to companies that do not. He also presented evidence that discrimination is more pervasive in more-regulated, and therefore less-competitive, industries. The idea that discrimination is costly to the discriminator is common sense among economists today, and that is due to Becker.

Procedural elements of legal regulation are: 1) procedural rules; 2) procedural relations; 3) acts implementing the procedural rights and obligations. Procedural rules are normative basis of procedural regulation. There is a view expressed in jurisprudence that under the procedural rules of law should be understood established or authorized by state authority generally binding rules of conduct of a procedural nature, regulating public relations in the field of founding, law-making and enforcement activities of authorized bodies of the state, public organizations and officials.

Procedural rules are not a rarity in the substantive by nature legislation. Often courts take them as "special rules" – towards the standards laid down in the Code of Civil Procedure. It is believed that this approach has no legal basis. Procedural rules contained in the other, not procedural, legislation, are applicable insofar as it does not contradict to the Code of Civil Procedure and does not contain, for example, additional safeguards in a particular situation. If a form is aimed at limiting procedural guarantees of judicial protection established by the CPC, it should not be applicable to the application - due to the priority of CPC in the civil procedural regulation.

11. A concept as a general idea about something

A concept is a general idea or notion that corresponds to some class of entities and that consists of the characteristic or essential features of the class. A concept is a mental abstraction, which allows generalization and the extension of knowledge from some known objects to others unknown. It integrates two or more particulars into a common mental unit. For example, the concept "book" subsumes all particular books. It does so based on the essential characteristics of multiple pieces of paper or pages combined into a bound stack.

A concept is formed by taking a number of similar entities and deciding what makes them similar in an important way. Each concept serves a particular purpose and is created to allow higher-level thinking. People do not waste their time forming arbitrary concepts.

In any given moment, concepts enable man to hold in the focus of his conscious awareness much more than his purely perceptual capacity would permit. The range of man’s perceptual awareness—the number of percepts he can deal with at any one time — is limited. He may be able to visualize four or five units—as, for instance, five trees. He cannot visualize a hundred trees or a distance of ten light-years. It is only his conceptual faculty that makes it possible for him to deal with knowledge of that kind.

12. A model as a representation of something

A model is a systematic description of an object or phenomenon that shares important characteristics with the object or phenomenon. Scientific models can be material, visual, mathematical, or computational and are often used in the construction of scientific theories.

Models can perform two fundamentally different representational functions. On the one hand, a model can be a representation of a selected part of the world (the ‘target system’). Depending on the nature of the target, such models are either models of phenomena or models of data. On the other hand, a model can represent a theory in the sense that it interprets the laws and axioms of that theory. These two notions are not mutually exclusive as scientific models can be representations in both senses at the same time.

Many scientific models represent a phenomenon, where ‘phenomenon’ is used as an umbrella term covering all relatively stable and general features of the world that are interesting from a scientific point of view. Empiricists like van Fraassen (1980) only allow for observables to qualify as such, while realists like Bogen and Woodward (1988) do not impose any such restrictions. The billiard ball model of a gas, the Bohr model of the atom, the double helix model of DNA, the scale model of a bridge, the Mundell-Fleming model of an open economy, or the Lorenz model of the atmosphere are well-known examples for models of this kind.

13 Theories are used in all areas of political science. So no matter what kind of political science course you take, you will be  taking a course in theory. More generally, all social sciences and all sciences use theory. In fact, the whole process of  scientific research is about discovering, testing, and improving theories. The facts that we base on observation and accept as reality are important because of the implications they have for theories. When you observe that your old friend at work who got a promotion and became a boss no longer acts friendly toward  you, you have observed a political fact that fits into a social  science theory known as Michels' "Iron Law of Oligarchy." Your observation had scientific significance if you thought about it in more general terms. Of course, it also had personal  significance‑‑losing a friend is sad. But if you understand the theory, coping and not blaming yourself or your friend  becomes easier.Michels' law has a couple of implications. The first one is  that leaders and followers will always exist. Moreover, most  people are content to just simply follow. That gives an advantage to those who would like to lead, especially when a group is forming. All you have to do is speak up first and you are almost immediately seen as a leader. That is true at work and it is true in social settings as well. If you haven't noticed this in the simulations we play, you have been missing something. A small group of leaders‑‑an oligarchy‑‑develops pretty quickly Political theory is a set of specified relationships involving political matters that focus and organize our inquiry in our  attempt to describe, explain, and predict political events and behaviors. The most powerful political theories accomplish all  three goals: describe, explain, and predict.As such theory is a systematic and general attempt to explain  something like;Why do people commit crimes?How do the media affect us?Each of these questions contains a reference  to some observed phenomenon.A suggested explanation for  the observed phenomenon is theory.More formally,a theory is  a coherent set of general propositions,used as principles of  explanations of the apparent relationship of certain observed  phenomena.The key element in this definition is the term proposition.

14)The framework of ideas and beliefs by which an individual interprets the world and interacts with it.Also it defines a paradigm as ''a word view underlying the theories and methodology of a particular scientific subject''. Thomas Kuhn-the paradigms characterized the pecuilar logical model of organization and solving of cognitive problems For Example:Theoretically politics thinks that in the future maybe in 2030 will be a 3 World War between Russia and USA .One of them always try to provoke situation ,so one of them the aim of paradigm of conflict. The words ''model''and ''pattern''goes well with the meanings of a a pradigm,even the word ''example''. Around the country, the political groups which are being most effective in providing new solutions to social problems are based on a new political paradigm, a spiritual approach to politics:  Respecting the interconnection of all life Thinking in whole systems Searching for common ground and the good of the whole  Creating a higher synthesis out of adversarial positions Matching rights with responsibilities In my opinion a apradigm is a comprehensive model of understanding that provides a field's members with view points and rules on how to look at the field's problems and how to solve them.''Paradigms gain their status because they are more successful than their competitors in solving a few problems that the group of practritioners has come to recognize as acute''.

15GEOG PARADIGM Explain the nature of politics by the influence of geographical factors. Geopolotics traditionally studies the links between political power and geographic space,and examines strategic prescriptions based on the relative importance of land power and sea power in world history.Itexamines the political,economic and strategic significance of geography,where geography is defined in terms of the location size,function and relationships of places and resources. For example political power has been influenced by the natural features(i.e. mountains,lakes,rivers,access to the ocean)affect the political power of countries that retain them. Geopolitics is-the theory which studies the depends of concrete political actions of the state on geographical factors(F.E reasons and character of wars for exiting to seas or extension of therritories peculiarities of policy of neutrality of small states and so on) Geographers are dividing themselves in the category of positivists, pragmatists, phenomenologists, existentialists, idealists, realists and dialectical materialists. This is a crisis phase with revolution which shall lead to new paradigm phase. Originally a geopolitics task saw in the analysis of geographical influence on power relations in the worldwide policy connected with preserving of territorial integrity, the sovereignty and safety of the state. Subsequently representatives of geopolitics began to treat more widely relations of politically organised community and territorial space, trying to reveal the special logic of imperious interactions formed by the states (institutes) depending on fiziko-geographical factors (availability of overland or sea borders, extent of territories etc.).

16. Biological paradigm and geopolitics.

Biological paradigm includes conceptions which explain the nature of political life by biological science and use as proof of this data from biology, anatomy and the number of other natural sciences. From the point of view of biological policy obviously existence at the person and the animal general beginnings, properties, genetic adaptations to environment, such as altruism, ability to interaction, aggression, curiosity, natural selection, fight for existence, a self-preservation instinct, etc. Therefore, laws of the nature can be seen and in human society, in the political sphere. Still Aristotle said that the person is a political animal who has an instinct of a joint residence – from a family to the state.

Geopolitics. Ideas about influence of the geographical environment on policy were stated still by Aristotle and Platon. The founder of geopolitics Zh.Boden (XVI century) formulated the concept of influence of climate on behavior of people. Subsequently this concept was developed by Sh. Montesquieu in the composition "About spirit of laws" in which the basic principles of "the geopolitical direction" in policy are formulated. According to Montesquieu, the geographical environment, and first of all climate, define spirit of the people, a form of a state system and character of a social system. Montesquieu considered that the size of the territory influences a political system: the small state – the republic, big – a monarchy, huge – a despotism. In the XX century of idea of geopolitics professor of the Oxford university J. Makkinder developed. Its work "A geographical axis of history" (1904) formed the basis of geopolitical concepts of the XX century. From the point of view of Makkinder, the geographical determinism, "placement" of political forces in the concrete geographical environment is essential for the modern geopolitical analysis and practical foreign policy. Makkinder proceeded from the postulate subsequently claimed in geopolitics that the states which don't have an outlet to the sea significantly lag behind in development. It came to division of power of the countries on overland and sea. Today the accounting of geopolitical factors is a necessary element when forming a political policy of any state.

17. Social paradigm, social life and social-cultural characteristics of a political actor

The social paradigm explains the political phenomena with influence of external factors (social, economic, cultural). The policy depends on the level of economic development, cultural traditions. The social paradigm unites various theories which essence is reduced to aspiration to explain the nature and an origin of policy through social factors, first of all through the defining role of this or that sphere of public life, this or that public phenomenon, through the acquired (social-cultural) properties of the subject social actions. Adheres to these positions, for example, the Marxist concept according to which the policy is determined by the movement of economic processes and acts as a superstructure over economic basis of society. The policy is the concentrated expression of economy: a private property – social classes – the organization of political life – the state. The concept of "rule of law" according to which the right is considered as the generating policy reason is distributed in the western political science. Supporters of this concept believe, what not politicians, namely the right by which have to be guided both the state, and the individuals who are able to provide a socio-political compromise in society. From their point of view, process of social development represents no other than history of domination of these or those laws replacing each other. From here primary activity of political scientists in the analysis of political life has to be reduced only to research of precepts of law. Culturological approach also belongs to kinds of a social paradigm. His supporters consider the content of political processes under a valuable and standard point of view. As a result of the politician appears as a product of conscious motivations and forms of behavior of the person. Thus as the political values defining nature of behavior of people, a form of political behavior call the following types: ideological which cornerstone moral, moral conviction of individuals in the value of this or that political system and the principles proclaimed it is; structural, relying on commitment of individuals to norms of a political regime; personal, connected with belief of individuals in personal qualities of political leaders. A choice of these or those values and consequently, and forms of political behavior is defined by social-cultural characteristics, individual properties of the person. The social paradigm in essence coincides with sociological approach and interprets policy through influence on it of other spheres of life of society: economies, social structure, right, culture, etc. The theories explaining the policy nature through influence, influence of other spheres of public life belong to a social paradigm: economies, ideologies, spiritual sphere.

18. The paradigms of conflict and consensus.

The paradigm of conflict – conflict reflects the deepening essence of society as a whole and of political life in particular.

The competition in the connection to resources of power social deficit and positions of prestige is interpreted as a source of self moving and evolution of political organisms. Conflict theories are perspectives in sociology that emphasize the social, political, or material inequality of a social group, that critique the broad socio-political system, or that otherwise detract from structural functionalism and ideological conservativism. Conflict theories draw attention to power differentials, such as class conflict, and generally contrast historically dominant ideologies. It is therefore a macro level analysis of society. Karl Marx is the father of the social conflict theory, which is a component of the 4 paradigms of sociology. Certain conflict theories set out to highlight the ideological aspects inherent in traditional thought. Whilst many of these perspectives hold parallels, conflict theory does not refer to a unified school of thought, and should not be confused with, for instance, peace and conflict studies, or any other specific theory of social conflict.

The paradigm of consensus

Consensus is considered as a conceptual method of interpretation of a politics. As Thomas Kuhn noticed “building of a theory is construction of a paradigm”. Consensus theory is a social theory that holds that a particular political or economic system is a fair system, and that social change should take place within the social institutions provided by it. Consensus theory contrasts sharply with conflict theory, which holds that social change is only achieved through conflict. Under consensus theory the absence of conflict is seen as the equilibrium state of society and that there is a general or widespread agreement among all members of a particular society about norms, values, rules and regulations. Consensus theory is concerned with the maintenance or continuation of social order in society.

19. Brethren of purity and their study of politics

Perfection (совершенство) in the study of a politics will be attained when Greek philosophies unite with Muslim.

Brethren of Purity save the task of politics though study as a study of 5 different kinds of politics.

Prophet politics / Prophetical (пропеческий)

Politics of rules :

Politics as the art of government

Private politics. Human behaviour

Personal Politics

The Arabic phrase Ikhwan al-Safa (short for, among many possible transcriptions, Ikhwān aṣ-Ṣafāʾ wa Khullān al-Wafā wa Ahl al-Ḥamd wa abnāʾ al-Majd,^[4] meaning "Brethren of Purity, Loyal Friends, People worthy of praise and Sons of Glory") can be translated as either the "Brethren of Purity" or the "Brethren of Sincerity"; various scholars such as Ian Netton prefer "of Purity" because of the group's ascetic impulses towards purity and salvation(спасение).

There have been a number of theories as to the authors of the Brethren. Though some members of the Ikhwan are known, it is not easy to work out exactly who, or how many, were part of this group of writers. The members referred to themselves as "sleepers in the cave" (Rasail 4th, p. 18); a hidden intellectual presence(в этом контексте общество). In one passage they give as their reason for hiding their secrets from the people, not as fear of earthly violence(насилие), but as desire to protect their God-given gifts from the world (Rasail 4th, p. 166). Yet they were well aware that their esoteric teachings might provoke(провоцировать,вызывать) unrest, and the various calamities(бедствия) suffered by the successors of the Prophet may have seemed good reason to remain hidden.

"Brothers of Purity. This was an association of Arab philosophers seated at Bosra in the 10th Century. They had forms of initiation, and they wrote many works, which were afterwards much studied by the Spanish Jews." -- The Arcane Schools, p. 184 (Referring to Mackenzie's piece, just quoted).

We will proceed to non-Masonic sources next, but first we shall include a list of similarities, and differences in the accounts just given. First, the similarities:

1. Steinschneider's JEWISH LITERATURE FROM THE EIGHTH TO EIGHTEENTH CENTURIES is the authority.

2. The Brothers of Purity were an association (society, incorporation) of Arabic Philosophers.

3. They established their association in the Tenth Century of the Common Era.

4. The location was at Bosra, Syria, in the Hauran. This is a very important area in our survey as a whole.

5. Their writings were studied by, in vogue among, and had an influence upon, the Spanish Jews of the 12th Century.

6. They had special forms of Initiation, and have been regarded by Steinschneider as a form of Freemasons.

Specific differences include:

1. Writins were mystical in nature (Mackey).

2. They were called "The Freemasons of Bosra" by Steinschneider (Mackey).

3. Principles seem analogous to those of the Essenes (Mackenzie).

4. They studied and wrote much (Mackenzie).

20. Al-Farabi

Is conceded to be as the father of Arab Political philosophy as Aristotle of the East.

Government by the state can be of 2 types:

Really leading inhabitants(обитатели) of the state what happiness

Living to illusive (иллюзорный) and false happiness

The geographical environment impacts the organization of society through social physics of man.

There are 3 forms of government:

Autocracy

Government by a few people

Government by the most deserving(заслуживает) personality selected by the people

The central theme of Fārābī’s political writings is the virtuous (добродетельный) regime, the political order whose guiding(руководящий) principle is the realization of human excellence by virtue. Fārābī conceives of human or political science as the inquiry(запрос) into man insofar as he is distinguished from other natural beings and from divine beings, seeking to understand his specific nature, what constitutes his perfection, and the way through which he can attain it. Unlike other animals, man is not rendered perfect merely(только) through the natural principles present in him, and unlike divine beings he is not eternally perfect but needs to achieve his perfection through the activity proceeding from rational understanding, deliberation(обсуждение, дискуссия), and choosing among the various alternatives suggested to him by reason. The initial presence of the power of rational knowledge and of the choice connected with it, is man’s first or natural perfection, the perfection he is born with and does not choose. Beyond this, reason and choice are present in a human being to use for realizing his end or the ultimate perfection possible for his nature. This ultimate perfection is identical with the supreme happiness available(доступный) to him. “Happiness is the good desired for itself, it is never desired to achieve by it something else, and there is nothing greater beyond it that a human being can achieve” .

21. al-Farabi about Good (virtuous) (благоприятный)government

al- Farabi considers a good government as one which is virtuous and adheres(придерживается) to the Islamic law, the the syar"iah(название ,не переводится). he saw no conflict at all in the relationship between religion and government. In his book "Religion as Basic of Government" , he referred to many Qur"anic verses(верши) of justify (оправдывают) this harmonious relationship. To him, a State is like a human body, where a good, virtuous heart is essential(существенный) for the progress and sustenance(поддержка/ помощь) of the body.

he maintained that there are two types of government, namely, the Good or Ideal and the Bad or Corrupt. influenced by Plato"s ideas al-Farabi maintained that the ideal ruler was a product of education, but he added other prerequisites(предпосылки) – innate(врожденный), acquired (приобретенный)attitude and will, and assistance from God"s revelation(откровение).

19. Brethren of purity and their study of politics

Perfection (совершенство) in the study of a politics will be attained when Greek philosophies unite with Muslim.

Brethren of Purity save the task of politics though study as a study of 5 different kinds of politics.

Prophet politics / Prophetical (пропеческий)

Politics of rules :

Politics as the art of government

Private politics. Human behaviour

Personal Politics

The Arabic phrase Ikhwan al-Safa (short for, among many possible transcriptions, Ikhwān aṣ-Ṣafāʾ wa Khullān al-Wafā wa Ahl al-Ḥamd wa abnāʾ al-Majd,^[4] meaning "Brethren of Purity, Loyal Friends, People worthy of praise and Sons of Glory") can be translated as either the "Brethren of Purity" or the "Brethren of Sincerity"; various scholars such as Ian Netton prefer "of Purity" because of the group's ascetic impulses towards purity and salvation(спасение).

There have been a number of theories as to the authors of the Brethren. Though some members of the Ikhwan are known, it is not easy to work out exactly who, or how many, were part of this group of writers. The members referred to themselves as "sleepers in the cave" (Rasail 4th, p. 18); a hidden intellectual presence(в этом контексте общество). In one passage they give as their reason for hiding their secrets from the people, not as fear of earthly violence(насилие), but as desire to protect their God-given gifts from the world (Rasail 4th, p. 166). Yet they were well aware that their esoteric teachings might provoke(провоцировать,вызывать) unrest, and the various calamities(бедствия) suffered by the successors of the Prophet may have seemed good reason to remain hidden.

"Brothers of Purity. This was an association of Arab philosophers seated at Bosra in the 10th Century. They had forms of initiation, and they wrote many works, which were afterwards much studied by the Spanish Jews." -- The Arcane Schools, p. 184 (Referring to Mackenzie's piece, just quoted).

We will proceed to non-Masonic sources next, but first we shall include a list of similarities, and differences in the accounts just given. First, the similarities:

1. Steinschneider's JEWISH LITERATURE FROM THE EIGHTH TO EIGHTEENTH CENTURIES is the authority.

2. The Brothers of Purity were an association (society, incorporation) of Arabic Philosophers.

3. They established their association in the Tenth Century of the Common Era.

4. The location was at Bosra, Syria, in the Hauran. This is a very important area in our survey as a whole.

5. Their writings were studied by, in vogue among, and had an influence upon, the Spanish Jews of the 12th Century.

6. They had special forms of Initiation, and have been regarded by Steinschneider as a form of Freemasons.

Specific differences include:

1. Writins were mystical in nature (Mackey).

2. They were called "The Freemasons of Bosra" by Steinschneider (Mackey).

3. Principles seem analogous to those of the Essenes (Mackenzie).

4. They studied and wrote much (Mackenzie).

20. Al-Farabi

Is conceded to be as the father of Arab Political philosophy as Aristotle of the East.

Government by the state can be of 2 types:

Really leading inhabitants(обитатели) of the state what happiness

Living to illusive (иллюзорный) and false happiness

The geographical environment impacts the organization of society through social physics of man.

There are 3 forms of government:

Autocracy

Government by a few people

Government by the most deserving(заслуживает) personality selected by the people

The central theme of Fārābī’s political writings is the virtuous (добродетельный) regime, the political order whose guiding(руководящий) principle is the realization of human excellence by virtue. Fārābī conceives of human or political science as the inquiry(запрос) into man insofar as he is distinguished from other natural beings and from divine beings, seeking to understand his specific nature, what constitutes his perfection, and the way through which he can attain it. Unlike other animals, man is not rendered perfect merely(только) through the natural principles present in him, and unlike divine beings he is not eternally perfect but needs to achieve his perfection through the activity proceeding from rational understanding, deliberation(обсуждение, дискуссия), and choosing among the various alternatives suggested to him by reason. The initial presence of the power of rational knowledge and of the choice connected with it, is man’s first or natural perfection, the perfection he is born with and does not choose. Beyond this, reason and choice are present in a human being to use for realizing his end or the ultimate perfection possible for his nature. This ultimate perfection is identical with the supreme happiness available(доступный) to him. “Happiness is the good desired for itself, it is never desired to achieve by it something else, and there is nothing greater beyond it that a human being can achieve” .

21. al-Farabi about Good (virtuous) (благоприятный)government

al- Farabi considers a good government as one which is virtuous and adheres(придерживается) to the Islamic law, the the syar"iah(название ,не переводится). he saw no conflict at all in the relationship between religion and government. In his book "Religion as Basic of Government" , he referred to many Qur"anic verses(верши) of justify (оправдывают) this harmonious relationship. To him, a State is like a human body, where a good, virtuous heart is essential(существенный) for the progress and sustenance(поддержка/ помощь) of the body.

he maintained that there are two types of government, namely, the Good or Ideal and the Bad or Corrupt. influenced by Plato"s ideas al-Farabi maintained that the ideal ruler was a product of education, but he added other prerequisites(предпосылки) – innate(врожденный), acquired (приобретенный)attitude and will, and assistance from God"s revelation(откровение).

22)Al-Farabi about political science

Al–Farabi is considered to be as Farther of Arab political philosophy as Aristotle of the East.

Government by the state can be 2 types:

1)really living inhabitants of the state toward happiness

2)living to illusive and False happiness

The geographical environment impacts the organization of society through social psychics of men

There 3 forms of government:

a) autocracy

b) government by small group of people

c) government by the most deserving personality selected by the people