Is the future automated? Several companies are leading research in ways to take people out of the driving seat (Getty Images)

“Having automated driving in cities allows for platooning – a much denser packing of cars in streets and also through junctions – which, if the total amount of cars is controlled, allows one to significantly reduce jams,” says Dohler. But others think this solution doesn’t go far enough – and that we should provide more reasons for putting less cars on the road. “The only effective long-term solutions are to improve alternative modes – walking, cycling and particularly high quality public transit,” says Todd Litman of the Victoria Transport Policy Institute in Canada. Road pricing that charges motorists extra if they drive during times of congestion could be one option. Cities like Singapore, London and Stockholm have successfully used road pricing to cut the amount of traffic. The carrot, in turn, would be a great public transport system, say with extra bus lanes, nicer train stations and “cup-holders” and on-board wi-fi on commuter buses, says Litman.

And, he adds, this solution could be implemented within a few months. It is routinely done during major events such as Olympics and World Cups, when host cities convert general traffic lanes into special event lanes to insure that athletes, coaches and officials arrive at the venues on time. “During the Vancouver 2010 Winter Olympics there were no traffic problems, and even affluent commuters such as my downtown lawyer brother-in-law took the bus to work. Yet, once the event was over, the lanes reverted to general traffic and traffic problems returned,” he adds.

Some cities are turning to financial penalties, charging drivers to enter central zones in an effort to cut down on traffic (Getty Images)

Perhaps it’s also time to return to our pre-car roots. Before the age of cars and trains, rivers and lakes were important inland waterways in countries such as Britain and Sweden.

Karl Garme, a researcher at the Royal Institute of Technology in Stockholm, is now conducting a study called Waterway 365. Funded by the Swedish Maritime Administration, the current initial phase aims to research the issues crucial to making use of waterways “as an infrastructural resource for public transport and city logistic systems over the 365 days a year”, says Garme. Vancouver, Sydney and Istanbul are already cities making good use of their waterways. “The question is not land or water, but integrating the waterways in the present system and incorporating it when planning new,” he says. “It means that the traveller shall easily change from commuter train to underground or boat or bus or… preferably not even thinking about means of travel, simply take the suggested route from a travel planner.”

The solution to beating traffic congestion in cities, if it comes, will probably take a long time to reap rewards. But if at least some of these new ideas are a success – whether it’s driverless cars, smart parking spaces or commuter apps – the days of Sao Paolo’s epic tailbacks may finally be consigned to history.