Political Party System

The political party system is essential to the working of the constitution. Although the parties are not registered or formally recognized in law, most candidates for election belong to one of the main parties. Since 1945 eight general elections have been won by the Conservative Party and six by the Labour Party. A number of smaller parties have national and local organizations outside Parliament, and are also represented in local government.

The Government is formed by the party with majority support in the Commons. The Queen appoints its leader as Prime Minister. As head of the Government the Prime Minister appoints about 100 ministers. About 20 ministers make up the Cabinet, the senior group making the major policy decisions. Ministers are collectively responsible for government decisions and individually responsible for their own departments. The second largest party forms the official Opposition, with its own leader and 'shadow cabinet'. The Opposition has a duty to challenge [оспаривать] government policies and to present an alternative program.

Shadow cabinet "теневой кабинет" (парламентский комитет главной оппозиционной партии [Opposition]. Состоит из ведущих деятелей парламентской фракции этой партии, которые занимаются теми же вопросами, что и члены кабинета [Cabinet]

Policies are carried out by government departments and executive agencies staffed by politically neutral civil servants. Over half the Civil Service, about 295,000 civil servants, work in over 75 executive agencies. Agencies perform many of the executive functions of the government, such as the payment of social security benefits [пособия по социальному обеспечению] and the issuing of passports and drivers' licences. Agencies are headed by chief executives responsible for their performance and who enjoy considerable freedom on financial, pay and personnel matters.

Britain's Legal System [правовая система]

England and Wales, Scotland and Northern Ireland all have their own legal systems, with minor differences in law, organization and practice.

>Criminal Justice [уголовное судопроизводство]

Law enforcement [обеспечение правопорядка] is carried out by 52 locally based police departments [полицейский участок] with about 160,000 police officers. The police are normally unarmed and there are strict limits to police powers of arrest. Firearms must be licensed and their possession is regulated.

In British criminal trials the accused in presumed innocent until proven guilty. Trials are in open court and the accused is represented by a lawyer. Most cases are tried before lay justices [мировой судья] sitting without a jury. The more serious cases are tried in the higher courts before a jury of 12 (15 in Scotland) which decides guilt or innocence.

Civil Justice

The civil law of England, Wales and Northern Ireland covers business related to the family, property, contracts and torts (wrongful acts [противоправное, незаконное деяние; деликт] suffered by one person at the hands of another). Actions brought to court are usually tried without a jury. Higher courts deal with more complicated civil cases. Most judgements are for sums of money, and the costs of an action are generally paid by the losing party.

tort деликт, гражданское правонарушение Причинение вреда личности или имуществу (кроме связанного с нарушением контракта). Под это определение подпадают такие правонарушения, как угроза [assault], нанесение физического ущерба [battery], незаконное задержание [illegal confinement] , слова или действия, причиняющие моральный ущерб. Сюда же относятся действия в форме самообороны при защите, как личности, так и собственности, а также нанесение морального ущерба незаконными действиями работников транспорта и сферы обслуживания. Иски граждан к административным органам на сумму, не превышающую 1 тыс. долларов, могут удовлетворяться не в судебном, а в административном порядке