College life

College life gives students a welcome measure of independence. But students should realize that new responsibilities go with this independence. They must balance hard work with recreation, allow enough time and energy for social activities, and learn to use to the best advantage the opportunities their school offers.

Residence. Most colleges that offer bachelor's degrees have residence halls or dormitories. Dormitory life offers many opportunities for students to make friends. Community colleges generally do not have dormitories. Many schools also have student-run residences called cooperatives. In these, the students can cut expenses by doing their own housework. Students may also live in private homes or apartments.

Many students live with their parents and commute (travel daily) between home and campus. Some colleges and universities whose campuses are in large cities provide commuter centers, where students who commute may spend free time while on campus.

Fraternities and sororities have houses at many schools. These groups choose their own members according to rules set up by the school. Educators do not agree on the value of the fraternity and sorority system. Some approve the social advantages of membership in these organizations. Others believe they tend to dominate college life and to become undemocratic. Some colleges prohibit social fraternities and sororities on their campuses. See FRATERNITY; SORORITY.

Instruction. College freshmen find they have much more time to do as they choose than they had in high school. Classes generally take up only about 15 hours each week, although there may be additional hours of laboratory work. The rest of the time between classes is free for study or recreation.

Most classes are lecture or discussion groups. In larger institutions, lectures may be given to hundreds of students at a time, sometimes with the help of closed-circuit television. Discussion groups, or seminars, are much smaller. Students often work on individual projects outside of class and report on them to the group.

Many universities and colleges offer courses known as individualized-study or self-directed courses. Such courses have no formal classroom sessions. Students work independently on assignments outlined by course materials. They complete the work at their own pace, under the guidance of a faculty member. In this kind of course, the student may use computers, individually assigned laboratory booths, and other learning aids.

For a general discussion of tests and grading, see GRADING; TESTING.

Libraries. University and college libraries are storehouses of knowledge. Some hold several million volumes. The library must be used to the fullest extent for a student to receive the greatest benefit from a course. Routine classwork can only scratch the surface of any field of knowledge. Students can round out their education only by consistent and intelligent independent reading. See LIBRARY (College and university libraries).

Research and laboratory work. The college teacher tries to do more than merely hand the student facts to memorize. It is far more important to develop the student's ability to find information and to learn to think intelligently. For this reason, the teacher tries to direct the student in independent study and research by recommending books for outside reading and by suggesting new avenues of study in a certain field. Students in the sciences and engineering have laboratories in which to work. World-famous scientists direct some of these laboratories. In them they have made many important discoveries, often with the help of graduate students. For example, much of the original work on the use of atomic energy was done in the laboratories of the University of Chicago and the University of California.

Extracurricular activities outside the normal routine of classes and study help develop the student's personality, and provide a proper balance for the daily routine. Athletics are one of many possible activities (see SPORTS). Students may also work on the staffs of school newspapers and magazines. They may take part in such activities as dramatics, music, debating, religion, and student government (see STUDENT GOVERNMENT).

History

European universities. Modern universities had their origin in Europe during the 1100's. But European universities were not the first in the world. The Arabs had universities at earlier dates. Al-Azhar University, founded in Cairo in about 970, is one of the oldest universities in the world still operating.

European universities developed from the cathedral and monastery schools. Their development took place so slowly that it is difficult to know the point at which they became universities. Many scholars believe the oldest European university is the University of Bologna, Italy. It came into existence about 1100. The University of Paris developed in the late 1100's. Many other universities appeared in Europe in the 1200's and the 1300's.

These first schools were founded largely to serve the professions. They provided the first unified teaching of law, medicine, and theology. The courses of study gradually broadened. During the Renaissance in the 1400's, the universities helped direct the revival of interest in Greek and Roman learning. From this revival developed the modern concept of the liberal-arts curriculum.

First universities in the Americas. The first university in the Western Hemisphere, the University of Santo Domingo, was founded in the Dominican Republic in 1538. The University of San Marcos at Lima, Peru, was founded in 1551, as was the National Autonomous University of Mexico. Other universities appeared shortly afterward in the other Spanish colonies.

The first university planned in what is now the United States was at Henricopolis, Virginia. It was authorized in 1619, but plans were dropped after the Indian massacres of 1622. Harvard University is the oldest active school of higher education in the United States. It was founded in 1636. Canada's oldest university, Laval University, was founded as the Seminary of Quebec in 1663. It became a university in 1852. Canada's first English-speaking university was established in 1789. It was the University of King's College at Windsor, Nova Scotia.

Higher education in the United States began when knowledge was limited. The modern scientific spirit had not yet developed. The early settlers looked upon colleges chiefly as a means of training ministers.

Many small church colleges were founded during the 1700's and 1800's, particularly in the Middle West. These colleges were general rather than specialized. They taught liberal arts rather than technical subjects. Early in U.S. history, some leaders saw the need for education that went beyond religious concerns. The state university was one response to this need.

Another development was the granting of land in new territories for the establishment of schools. Wealthy citizens also gave gifts for the founding of nonchurch schools. A number of schools that had been established by churches also came under private control.

Growth of specialization. During the 1800's and through the mid-1900's, specialization in knowledge increased. Many colleges were created to train students in such fields as agriculture, medicine, engineering, and commerce. Specialization also resulted in an increased emphasis on advanced study. As a result, graduate schools were established at many larger schools. In turn, professional and research interests came to dominate all other educational interests. Education for professions overshadowed the liberal arts.

Another cause of specialization has been the increase in the number of students attending college. In the early days, universities served only a relatively limited group. But the people of the United States insisted that higher education should be available to anyone who wanted it.

Recent developments. Educators agree students need a broad education as a basis for whatever field attracts them. Some colleges stress the study of classic works of literature. Others combine campus study with practical training in factories and offices.

During the 1960's and early 1970's, programs were developed to help members of minority groups obtain a higher education. The federal government established Upward Bound, a project designed to encourage and prepare students from low-income homes to attend college. Some schools modified their admissions standards for members of minority groups to encourage their enrollment. Curriculum designers also fashioned new programs, such as Afro-American, American Indian, and Chicano studies. These programs were intended to broaden the student's understanding of the contributions of various ethnic groups to American society.

Another major development in American universities and colleges has been their increasing contribution to the world outside the campus. University laboratories have become important centers of experiment and discovery. College extension services, home study, correspondence courses, and radio and TV programs have spread knowledge far beyond the limits of the campus.

During the 1980's and early 1990's, the student bodies of many universities and colleges became increasingly diverse. Many campuses began offering programs that deal with such issues as gender, disability, age, and sexual preference.

Contributor: I. King Jordan, Ph.D., President, Gallaudet Univ.

Questions

What information should you get when you select a university or college?

How does a university differ from a college?

How is a university faculty usually organized?

In what three ways are school-year programs divided?

What opportunities does a university or college offer?

What is the oldest university in the United States? In Canada?

From what sources can a student obtain financial aid?

What kinds of courses did the first universities and colleges in the United States offer? Why?

Why has specialization developed in higher education?

What is the largest university in the United States? In Canada?

Additional resources

Barron's Profiles of American Colleges. 19th ed. Barron's, 1992.

Dennis, Marguerite J. Complete College Financing Guide. 2nd ed. Barron's, 1992.

HEP Higher Education Directory. Higher Education Pub., published annually.

Lunenfeld, Marvin and Peter. College Basics: How to Start Right and Finish Strong. Semester Pr., 1992.

Ordovensky, Pat, and Thornton, Robert. Opening College Doors: How to Make the Admission Process Work for You. HarperCollins, 1992.

Paige, Michele A. After the SATs: An Insider's Guide to Freshman Year. Barron's, 1991.

Sowell, Thomas. Choosing a College: A Guide for Parents and Students. Perennial Lib., 1989.

Liberal arts are the organized bodies of knowledge considered essential for a free human being. They originated in ancient Greece and Rome and included two groups of studies. One group dealt with the correct use of language (grammar), thinking clearly (logic), and expressing one's ideas persuasively (rhetoric). The second group included the branches of mathematics and music. Originally, these branches were arithmetic, geometry, astronomy, and harmony. Out of these traditional studies came the curriculum of the liberal arts and sciences, which is grouped into the natural sciences, social sciences, and humanities. Colleges in the United States that concentrate on these studies are usually called liberal arts colleges.

Contributor: Gerald L. Gutek, Ph.D., Prof. of Education and History, Loyola Univ. of Chicago.

Community college is an institution that offers additional training beyond high school. Community colleges, sometimes called junior colleges, offer a variety of programs. Most of the programs take two years to complete. Some students take the first two years of a program leading to a bachelor's degree. Others take technical education programs that prepare them for semiprofessional jobs. Still others take courses in what are usually called "adult education programs." Most community colleges also offer courses for students who need additional preparation in basic skills. Community and junior colleges grant associate's degrees for completion of two-year programs, and certificates for some specialized programs.

Most of the institutions called community colleges get financial support from local or state governments. Most of the institutions called junior colleges are privately supported.

The first junior colleges in the United States were established in the late 1800's. By 1900, eight private junior colleges were operating. Joliet Junior College, established in 1901 in Joliet, Ill., is the oldest public junior college still in operation.

By 1950, there were about 600 community and junior colleges in the United States. More than half of the colleges operated as part of the local public school system and shared financial support with all other schools in the system. Many of them used high school classrooms and equipment and offered limited educational programs because they lacked sufficient funds. As businesses and industries began searching for better educated people in the 1950's, many states and local communities increased their support of community and junior colleges. In the 1960's, from 30 to 50 new community and junior colleges were established each year. In the early 1990's, there were about 1,150 community and junior colleges with about 6 million students in the United States.

How community colleges operate

Control and financing. Most of the two-year colleges in the United States are public institutions. That is, they receive funds from local or state governments, or both. Some state universities operate two-year branch campuses. A few community colleges operate as part of county or district school systems.

Some two-year colleges are private institutions. Some of these colleges receive financial support from church denominations. The rest of these colleges receive most of their funds from tuitions, fees, and contributions.

Community colleges began receiving federal aid in the 1960's. Federal funds help colleges in many ways. They may be used to build new buildings, or to set up vocational education or special education programs. Federal funds also provide loans and other financial aid to students.

Curriculum. Community colleges offer two main types of programs. In one program, students take courses designed to fulfill the freshman and sophomore requirements that lead to a bachelor's degree. These students must transfer from the community college to a college or university that grants bachelor's degrees to complete their junior and senior years.

In the second main program, community colleges offer specialized training for semiprofessional jobs in such fields as industry and engineering, health services, business, and public service. Students in industrial programs train for such jobs as drafting and laboratory work. Health programs train students for careers as nurses, X-ray technicians, or other medical workers. Business programs may include training in data processing, computer technology, and office management. Public service programs train students to become city planners, police officers, or other public employees.

Accrediting. Most two-year colleges are accredited by one of the six regional accrediting agencies recognized by the U.S. Department of Education. These same agencies accredit four-year colleges and universities. State boards of education also evaluate two-year colleges. Students attending two-year colleges approved by the state can easily transfer their credits to other colleges and universities approved by that state.

Faculty. Community colleges usually require teachers to have at least a master's degree. They prefer to hire teachers who would rather teach students in classrooms than conduct research in laboratories. Many community college teachers have taught in high schools, or in four-year colleges or universities. Some persons who do not have master's degrees are hired as teachers because they have had special training and experience.

Why community college?

Importance to students. One of the most attractive features of many community colleges is their wide range of technical training programs. Less than a third of the community college graduates continue their studies for bachelor's degrees. Special occupational programs allow students to take only those courses that interest them or that qualify them for better jobs.

Many community colleges have an "open-door" admissions policy. This policy allows students who might not qualify for admission to other colleges to continue their education.

Community colleges are often called "commuter colleges." Students within commuting distance may live at home and work at part-time jobs while they attend classes. Many community colleges have set up special programs for students who work during the day. The students may have classes until 10 or 11 p.m., or later. Evening classes are so popular that some community colleges have a larger number of evening students than they do day students. Some community colleges have established "weekend colleges" so that students can earn associate's degrees by attending classes on the weekends.

The cost of attending most community colleges is relatively low. Tuition and fees at these colleges average about $1,300 a year for residents.

Importance to community. Many community colleges try to provide educational programs that will benefit local business, industry, and government. They may conduct surveys to determine what types of trained personnel the community needs most. They may also ask community leaders to help plan courses of study. For example, colleges located in resort areas may offer courses in restaurant and hotel management, and colleges in rural areas may emphasize agricultural training. Some community colleges in large cities have developed special social and educational programs for disadvantaged minority groups. Many community colleges emphasize programs for older adults, including job retraining and cultural development.

In many states, high school graduates who want to go to college enroll first in community colleges. Florida and some other states have established upper-division universities, which have classes for juniors and seniors. These universities are especially designed for community college graduates, though not limited to them.

Two-year colleges in Canada

Canada has about 200 two-year colleges and institutes. They are called regional colleges, institutes of technology, colleges for general academic and vocational education, or colleges of applied arts and technology. These colleges are organized much like U.S. community colleges. They offer job training and technical training programs, and academic programs like those that university students take during their first two years. Some programs take over two years to complete. The Canadian schools grant diplomas of technology or applied arts. They get funds from provincial or local governments, or both. Most of these colleges have been established since the early 1950's.

Contributor: Terry U. O'Banion, Ph.D., Executive Director, League for Innovation in the Community College.

College entrance examination is a test or a series of tests that helps determine whether a person meets the admission requirements of a college or university. Most colleges throughout the world require applicants to take some kind of entrance examination. Colleges that require these tests also have other standards for admission, such as good high school grades and strong personal recommendations.

Many nations have established one examination that all students must pass to qualify for admission to a university. The United States has no such test. Instead, many universities and colleges in the United States require applicants to take examinations given by the College Entrance Examination Board (CEEB). Others require tests prepared by the American College Testing Program. Many schools accept scores from either of these agencies. Each agency's examinations are given several times each year throughout the United States and other countries.

Most students who plan to attend college take a college entrance examination during their junior or senior year in high school. A student may take the test as many times as he or she wishes.

The College Entrance Examination Board gives two types of entrance examinations, known as the SAT's. These tests are the SAT I: Reasoning Test and the SAT II: Subject Tests. Information about the CEEB tests is available from the College Entrance Examination Board, 45 Columbus Avenue, New York, New York 10023.

The SAT I consists primarily of multiple-choice questions and has two sections: (1) verbal and (2) mathematical. The verbal section of the test measures reading comprehension and the ability to understand word relationships. The mathematical section of the test measures the ability to understand mathematical concepts and to use them in solving problems.

Students can prepare for the SAT I by taking the CEEB's Preliminary SAT (PSAT). Most high schools give the PSAT to 11th graders each October. The PSAT is also the qualifying test for the National Merit Scholarships.

The SAT II tests measure a student's knowledge in specific subject areas. The CEEB gives 16 one-hour tests in such areas as foreign language, mathematics, science, and writing. Some schools that require applicants to take the SAT I do not require them to take any of the SAT II's. Many schools that require SAT II's ask their applicants to take tests in three subjects. Most SAT II's consist of multiple-choice questions. However, the writing test also requires a 20-minute writing sample.

The American College Testing Program examination, known as the ACT test, has two parts. The major part consists of four tests: (1) English, (2) mathematics, (3) science reasoning, and (4) reading. These tests also use multiple-choice questions. The second part of the examination is the Student Profile. Students complete this section by answering a series of questions about their achievements, goals, and special interests. Information about the ACT tests can be obtained from the American College Testing Program, Box 168, Iowa City, Iowa 52243.

Scores on the SAT I and SAT II's are reported on a scale ranging from 200 to 800 points. There is no "passing" grade, and each college has its own standards for interpreting the scores. The CEEB helps students interpret their test results by providing a percentile rank for each score. The percentile rank shows how a student's score compares with the scores of others who took the test. For example, a score of 500 on the verbal section places a student at the 50th percentile compared with a national sample of high school juniors and seniors. In other words, the student scored higher than 50 percent of the sample group.

The ACT tests are scored on a scale that ranges from 1 to 36. In addition, the ACT provides a percentile rank for each score.

Both the American College Testing Program and the CEEB send score reports to the student's high school and to the colleges to which the student is applying. A student can request as part of his or her CEEB score report a listing of percentile ranks for three specific colleges. This listing shows how the student's scores compare with the scores of the members of the freshman class at those schools.

Some educators criticize the emphasis placed on test scores. They believe that the tests measure only a few of the many abilities necessary for success in college. Also, they claim that use of the tests does not change many admission decisions. Some educators say that the tests may discriminate against disadvantaged and minority groups.

The Advanced Placement Program (AP) is a CEEB testing program that allows high school students to earn college credit for knowledge that they have gained in high school. Each May, the AP offers college-level examinations in many high school subjects. A sufficiently high score on one of these tests may qualify a student to receive credit for college work in the subject. A student who scores well on several tests may be given sophomore instead of freshman status.

Contributor: James Crouse, Ph.D., Prof. of Educational Studies, Univ. of Delaware.

Fellowship is a sum of money given to scholars so they can continue their studies. Some fellowships are for specified periods of time, but others are for life. Fellowships have been made since the Middle Ages.

Fellowships are usually given by universities, foundations, learned societies, corporations, and governments. Universities give fellowships for graduate work. Sometimes fellows teach classes. Foundations and learned societies give fellowships for graduate study and individual research in such areas as education, medicine, and international relations. Large foundation and learned society fellowship programs in the United States include those of the Alfred P. Sloan Foundation, the American Council of Learned Societies, the John D. and Catherine T. MacArthur Foundation, the John Simon Guggenheim Memorial Foundation, and the Social Science Research Council. Corporation fellowships often encourage research in fields of interest to the sponsoring corporation. The U.S. government conducts fellowship programs in the arts, humanities, and sciences through the National Endowment for the Arts, the National Endowment for the Humanities, and the National Science Foundation.

In the United States, fellowships are usually granted for one or two years. The amount of money given may vary from a few hundred to several thousand dollars. In the United Kingdom, the grants are often given for three to five years.

Contributor: Joseph C. Kiger, Ph.D., Author, Operating Principles of the Larger Foundations.

Scholarship is a grant of money or free tuition awarded to a student on the basis of achievement, ability, or financial need. People usually consider a scholarship an honor in recognition of outstanding academic work, as well as financial aid to those who need it. Scholarships are generally awarded as a means of selecting and training capable people so that they may become assets to the community and nation.

Endowed foundations and government agencies often grant funds for advanced study and for research. Such grants are called fellowships. Most scholarships are awarded by universities and colleges, businesses, industries, labor unions, and government sources. See FELLOWSHIP; FOUNDATIONS (Education).

The United States government provides billions of dollars in scholarship aid each year in the form of Pell Grants and Supplemental Educational Opportunity Grants. These awards are based on financial need.

Private colleges and universities establish scholarships to attract students of outstanding intellectual ability or academic achievement. Scholarships also help promote particular fields of study, such as engineering or nursing.

Many scholarships are founded for personal reasons and carry the name of the donor. Some of these scholarships are funded by alumni of the institution or by prominent citizens in the community.

State scholarships are available in various forms for people with special abilities, disabilities, or needs. State colleges and universities grant fewer scholarships than private institutions because the state schools have lower tuitions. However, numerous states establish legislative scholarships for students from various regions of the state or for out-of-state residents. In addition, many states provide special scholarship aid for students with various disabilities, through their vocational rehabilitation programs.

Merit scholarships for students with exceptional ability have been awarded annually since 1956 by the National Merit Scholarship Corporation (NMSC) of Evanston, Ill. NMSC is a not-for-profit, independently financed organization.

The Merit Program is NMSC's major activity and is supported by grants from corporations, private foundations, colleges and universities, and other organizations. Students enter the annual Merit Program by taking the Preliminary Scholastic Assessment Test/National Merit Scholarship Qualifying Test (PSAT/NMSQT), usually during their junior year in high school. Scholarships are awarded on the basis of test scores, academic and extracurricular accomplishments, personal characteristics, and other information submitted by the candidates and their schools.

Private-sector scholarships are awarded by such entities as corporations, foundations, trusts, and religious groups. Students may be required to show financial need or academic achievement to qualify for these scholarships.

However, some recipients may just need to promise to work for the donor organization after completing their studies. Many organization scholarships are reserved for members or their children. Many others also have no age requirement and are awarded to students over the age of 25.

Grants to veterans. Federal grants were given to veterans of World War II for study in any approved college, university, or vocational or trade school. To be eligible, veterans must have had at least 90 days of service and an honorable discharge. Similar grants were made to veterans who served in the Korean War and to all veterans who served after Jan. 31, 1955, and before Jan. 1, 1977, including Vietnam War veterans.

Veterans who have begun active duty after Dec. 31, 1976, receive grant money for education if they have had a certain amount withheld from their pay. The sum that each veteran receives is significantly larger than the amount withheld. Veterans receiving such grant money include those who served in the Persian Gulf War. Some veterans of the Reserves and the Army and Air National Guard are also entitled to receive educational benefits. See VETERANS AFFAIRS, DEPARTMENT OF (Benefits and other services).

International scholarships. Organizations in the United States and in many other countries around the world award scholarships to allow foreign students to study in the United States. Such organizations also award scholarships to send American students and teachers overseas. The purpose of these scholarships is to promote better international understanding and cultural relations.

The oldest and most famous of the international scholarships are the Rhodes Scholarships (see RHODES SCHOLARSHIP). The newest and most numerous are the Fulbright Scholarships, supported by the federal government (see FULBRIGHT SCHOLARSHIP). They provide a year's schooling in the United States for students from other countries, and a year of study abroad for U.S. students and teachers. The United States also exchanges several international scholarships with Latin-American countries. The U.S. clearinghouse for exchange scholarships and fellowships is the Institute of International Education in New York City. Many colleges and universities offer scholarships to returning volunteers from Peace Corps or other government service.

Applying for scholarships. Here are some tips for people applying for scholarships: (1) write the school or organization that awards the scholarship to obtain a list of requirements; (2) enclose a short letter and a self-addressed, stamped envelope when requesting information; and (3) apply for as many scholarships as possible while still being selective.

Contributor: Daniel James Cassidy, M.S., Founder and President, National Scholarship Research Service.

Additional resources

Cassidy, Daniel J., and Alves, M. J. The Scholarship Book: The Complete Guide to Private-Sector Scholarships, Grants and Loans for Undergraduates. 4th ed. Prentice-Hall, 1993.

Deutschman, Alan. Winning Money for College: The High School Student's Guide to Scholarship Contests. 2nd ed. Peterson's, 1987.

Feingold, S. Norman and Marie. Scholarships, Fellowships and Loans. Bellman, frequently updated.

Goeller, Priscilla S. The A's and B's of Academic Scholarships. Octameron, frequently updated.

Coeducation is the teaching of males and females together in the same class or school. In many countries, coeducation is uncommon, especially in high school. In the United States, however, most schools are coeducational. A few private schools admit students of only one sex. Most of these schools are operated by religious groups.

Most early schools in the United States enrolled only boys and men. Many people thought women had weaker minds than men and would be disturbed by too much education. During the 1800's, however, new educational opportunities opened up for girls and women. Oberlin College, founded in 1833 as Oberlin Collegiate Institute, became the first coeducational college in the United States. Several women's colleges also were established. Mount Holyoke Female Seminary (now Mount Holyoke College) opened as a school for women in 1837. By 1850, it offered a curriculum similar to that of men's colleges. Vassar College, another early women's college, was founded in 1861. By the mid-1800's, a number of high schools had become coeducational. By 1882, public elementary schools had begun to admit both boys and girls.

During the mid-1900's, most private men's and women's colleges became coeducational. They did so primarily to attract more students but also to meet demands made by the women's rights movement. In addition, government regulations cut off federal funds from schools that discriminated on the basis of sex. However, some women's colleges, including Mount Holyoke and Smith, chose to remain all-female schools. Officials of these colleges believed women could better develop leadership and other abilities if they did not have to compete with men.

Contributor: Helen S. Astin, Ph.D., Prof. of Education, Univ. of California, Los Angeles.

Graduation. Schools and colleges usually award a diploma or certificate in recognition of achievement to students who satisfactorily complete a regular course. Most institutions present their diplomas at special ceremonies, called graduation exercises.

Graduation exercises were first held by European universities of the Middle Ages. American educational institutions still have many of the European graduation customs. Usually there are two special graduation ceremonies--baccalaureate and commencement. The baccalaureate service is a religious service, usually held on the Sunday before commencement. The diplomas are given out in the commencement exercise.

In most colleges, graduates wear academic gowns and caps to the ceremonies. By tradition, gowns are long and black. The tasseled, flat black caps are called mortarboards. Both cap and gown are patterned after European academic dress. The color of the tassel shows the kind of degree the graduate is receiving. Graduates may wear colored hoods on their backs to show the highest degree they already hold, and the institution which conferred it. In some colleges, they wear colored caps and gowns as well as hoods.

It is a custom at many high schools and some colleges for the valedictorian and salutatorian of the graduating class to make speeches. The valedictorian is the graduate with the highest marks. The salutatorian is the graduate with the second highest marks.

Contributor: Gerald L. Gutek, Ph.D., Prof. of Education and History, Loyola Univ. of Chicago.

Degree, College. A university or college awards a degree to a person who has completed a required course of study. The institution presents the degree in the form of a diploma, a document certifying the award. The four basic kinds of degrees are called associate, bachelor, master, and doctor. An honorary degree may be awarded for an outstanding contribution in a field.

The associate degree is awarded by many U.S. colleges and universities and most community, or junior, colleges (see COMMUNITY COLLEGE). An associate degree usually indicates completion of two years of college work. The most commonly awarded associate degrees are the Associate in Arts and the Associate in Science.

The bachelor's degree. In the United States, a college student normally receives a bachelor's degree after four years of study in a university or college. Most students specialize in a field of study called a major subject. Many institutions require other types of study outside a major to ensure a liberal education. There are many kinds of bachelor's degrees, but the two most common are the Bachelor of Arts (B.A.) and the Bachelor of Science (B.S.). The B.A. usually includes majors in such subjects as history, literature, and fine arts, and, in certain cases, science and mathematics. The B.S. usually includes majors in the physical and natural sciences. Most engineering students receive B.S. degrees. Many colleges offer specialized degrees, such as the Bachelor of Education or Bachelor of Architecture. Law students obtain the Doctor of Jurisprudence (J.D.) after more training. Outstanding achievement in a bachelor's degree may be designated by the Latin phrases cum laude (with praise), magna cum laude (with great praise), or summa cum laude (with the highest praise).

British colleges and universities offer two types of bachelor's degrees, an ordinary, or pass, degree and an honors degree which requires more extensive and more advanced work. Canadian colleges and universities usually follow British or French tradition in their systems of degrees. See CANADA (Education).

The master's degree. In the United States, students who desire a master's degree must complete one or two years of advanced study beyond the bachelor's degree. Many institutions require a thesis, a written report of a special investigation in the student's major field. The two most common master's degrees are the Master of Arts and the Master of Science.

In Britain, the master's degree is usually considered the highest requirement for an academic career, but a number of British universities also offer the doctorate. In Scotland, a student proceeds directly to the master's degree without taking a bachelor's degree.

The doctor's degree is the highest earned degree in the United States, France, Germany, and many other countries. There are two distinct types of doctor's degrees. One is a professional degree required to practice in certain professions, such as medicine. The other is a research degree that indicates the candidate has acquired mastery of a broad field of knowledge and the technique of scholarly research.

In the United States, the research doctorate requires at least two or three additional years of study beyond the master's degree. Most doctoral students are expected to have a reading knowledge in two foreign languages. The candidate must also complete examinations and present a written thesis or dissertation. The doctoral thesis represents an original contribution to knowledge, and is a more detailed study of a research problem than that required for the master's degree.

The Doctor of Philosophy degree is the most important research doctorate and may include specialization in almost any academic subject. The Doctor of Education, Doctor of Medicine, and Doctor of Dental Surgery degrees represent advanced professional training. Students in such professions as medicine and dentistry can obtain a doctor's degree without first receiving a bachelor's or master's degree. But most acquire a bachelor of science degree before entering medical training.

Honorary degrees. Many award honorary degrees to people for achievement in their chosen fields. Chief among these are the Doctor of Letters and the Doctor of Laws. These are given to prominent authors, scholars, and leaders in the professions, business, government, and industry.

History. College degrees date from the 1200's when schools in Europe won the right to examine and license their graduates. The system of degrees, which took form by the 1300's, was modeled on the guild system. A student spent a sort of apprenticeship as a candidate for a bachelor's degree. Receiving the bachelor's degree resembled becoming a journeyman in a craft. The master's degree represented the status of a master craftsman, and served as a license to teach. The student's thesis was his "masterpiece," just as a journeyman submitted an example of his work to become a master craftsman. If the student continued to study and teach in law, medicine, or theology, he might earn the title of doctor. The medieval system remained largely unchanged until the impact of science on education in the 1700's and 1800's. During the last hundred years, college degrees in the United States have been extended to include many new fields of knowledge.

Contributor: Douglas Sloan, Ph.D., Prof. of History and Education, Teachers College, Columbia Univ.; Editor, Education and Values.

ABBREVIATIONS FOR COLLEGE DEGREES

Common Abbreviation Degree Common Abbreviation Degree

A.A. Associate in Arts A.S. Associate in Science

B.A., A.B. Bachelor of Arts B.A. in Ed. Bachelor of Arts in Education

B.Arch. Bachelor of Architecture B.B.A. Bachelor of Business Administration

B.D. Bachelor of Divinity B.Ed. Bachelor of Education

B.E.E. Bachelor of Electrical Engineering B.F.A. Bachelor of Fine Arts

B.L.S. Bachelor of Library Science B.M., B.Mus. Bachelor of Music

B.M.E., B.Mus.Ed. Bachelor of Music Education B.S. Bachelor of Science

B.S. in B.A.,/B.S.B.A. Bachelor of Science in Bus. Administr B.S. in C.E.,/ B.S.C.E Bachelor of Science in Civil Engineering B.S. in Ch.E.,/B.S.Ch.E. Bachelor of Science in Chem. Engineer B.S.Chem. Bachelor of Science in Chemistry

B.S. in Ed., B.S.Ed. Bachelor of Science in Education B.S. in E.E., B.S.E.E Bachelor of Science in Electrical Engineerin B.S. in Elem.Ed. Bachelor of Science in Elementary Education

B.S. in L.S. Bachelor of Science in Library Science

B.S. in M.E., B.S.M.E. Bachelor of Science in Mechanical Engineering

B.S. in Med.Tech. Bachelor of Science in Medical Technology

B.S.J., J.B.S. Bachelor of Science in Journalism B.S.N. Bachelor of Science in Nursing

B.S.Pharm. Bachelor of Science in Pharmacy D.A. Doctor of Arts

D.B.A. Doctor of Business Administration D.C. Doctor of Chiropractic

# D.D. Doctor of Divinity D.D.S. Doctor of Dental Surgery

D.M.D. Doctor of Dental Medicine # D.Mus., Mus.D. Doctor of Music

D.O. Doctor of Osteopathy D.V.M. Doctor of Veterinary Medicine

Ed.D., D.Ed. Doctor of Education J.D. Juris Doctor

# L.H.D. Doctor of Humane Letters # Lit.D., D.Lit. Doctor of Literature

# Litt.D. Doctor of Letters LL.B. Bachelor of Laws

# LL.D. Doctor of Laws LL.M. Master of Laws

M.A., A.M. Master of Arts M.A. in Ed. Master of Arts in Education

M.A.T. Master of Arts in Teaching M.B.A. Master of Business Administration

M.D. Doctor of Medicine M.Div. Master of Divinity

M.Ed. Master of Education M.F.A. Master of Fine Arts

M.L.S. Master of Library Science M.M., M.Mus. Master of Music

M.M.Ed., M.Mus.Ed. Master of Music Education M.R.E. Master of Religious Education

M.S. Master of Science M.S. in C.E., M.S.C.E. Master of Science in Civil Engineering M.S. in Ch.E. Master of Science in Chemical Engineering

M.S. in Ed. Master of Science in Education

M.S. in E.E., M.S.E.E Master of Science in Electrical Engineering

M.S. in L.S. Master of Science in Library Science M.S. in M.E. Master of Science in MechanicalEngineering M.S.J. Master of Science in Journalism M.S.W. Master of Social Work

Ph.B. Bachelor of Philosophy Ph.D. Doctor of Philosophy

Sc.D., D.Sc., D.S. Doctor of Science S.T.M. Master of Sacred Theology

Th.M. Master of Theology

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Fraternity is a society of college or university students and alumni. Fraternities are often called Greek-letter societies because most fraternities form their names by combining two or three letters of the Greek alphabet. The word fraternity comes from the Latin word frater, meaning brother. Members pledge to keep the group's ceremonies and mottoes secret.

The best-known kind of fraternity is the general or social fraternity. Professional fraternities are made up of people preparing for, or working in, such professions as education, law, medicine, and science. Fraternities called honor societies select their members for exceptional academic records. Recognition societies are for people with superior achievement in a specific area. A student may join only one general fraternity. But a general fraternity member may also join a professional fraternity, an honor society, or both.

Many fraternities admit both men and women, but most general fraternities are for men. Women's organizations for college students and alumnae are discussed in the SORORITY article.

Most fraternities have chapters (local units) in several schools in the United States and Canada. Intercollegiate, national, and international fraternities of all kinds have about 23,000 chapters and about 11,700,000 members. Local fraternities serve a single school.

Fraternities began in the United States. Phi Beta Kappa was the first fraternity. It was founded in 1776 at William and Mary College as a general fraternity. It later became an honor society. The Kappa Alpha Society was founded in 1825 at Union College in Schenectady, N.Y. It is the oldest continuing general fraternity. Theta Xi, the first professional fraternity, was founded in 1864 at Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute. It became a general fraternity in 1926. Phi Delta Phi, founded in 1869 at the University of Michigan for law students, is the oldest continuing professional fraternity.

General fraternities

Membership. To join a social fraternity, a student must be invited by its members. The invitation to join, called a bid, must be approved by the chapter members. Bids are made following a period called rush. During rush, students who are interested in joining a fraternity attend events to learn about various fraternities and meet their members. Students who accept bids are called pledges or associates. They must prove their ability to live, study, and work with fraternity members before they are finally accepted for membership. A pledge or associate who fills all requirements is initiated and receives a fraternity pin (badge).

Activities. Fraternities are well known for social activities, such as dances and parties. But they also play an important role in other aspects of college life. Fraternaties encourage members to work for good grades, and they stress participation in athletic, cultural, political, social, and other activities. Most fraternities maintain a fraternity house, where their members live. Fraternity life provides experience in self-government and develops skills in cooperation, leadership, and relations with other people. Fraternities aid charity programs, extend hospitality to students from other countries, and provide funds for scholarships to fellow students and for summer camps for children. Most fraternities have alumni chapters and associations that advise chapters in financial affairs.

Organization. Each general fraternity chapter is a self-governing unit. But they are regulated by college officials, their own interfraternity council, and the national or international headquarters of the fraternity.

Most colleges have an interfraternity council. The council consists of representatives from all fraternities on campus. It promotes joining a fraternity, settles interfraternity disputes, and enforces conduct codes.

Representatives from each chapter of a national fraternity meet every year or two years in a national convention to decide fraternity policy. National officers, usually alumni, are elected at the conventions. Most national fraternities have a permanent staff and publish a magazine.

The National Interfraternity Conference, Inc., established in 1909, provides a forum for its 58 member fraternities. The NIC provides services in the areas of government affairs and university and public relations. It also sponsors an annual meeting. The National Interfraternity Conference has headquarters at 3901 W. 86th Street, Suite 280, Indianapolis, IN 46268.

Professional fraternities

Professional fraternities are similar to general fraternities in many ways. But professional fraternities are made up of persons with a common academic or occupational interest. Some professional groups require higher academic standing than do general fraternities. Members may not pledge other fraternities in the same profession, but they may pledge a general fraternity. There are over 75 intercollegiate professional fraternities for men and women, with more than 3,100 chapters and about 1,700,000 members. Most of these fraternities belong to the Professional Fraternity Association.

Honor and recognition societies

Honor societies are either departmental or general. A departmental honor society selects men and women who have excellent academic records in a specific area of study. A general honor society selects members from all fields of study. A recognition society selects those who have done outstanding work in an area such as retailing or community service.

Contributor: Critically reviewed by the National Interfraternity Conference

Sorority is a society of women or girls. In most sororities, the members are college or university students and graduates. Sororities, like fraternities, are often called Greek-letter societies. Most form their names by combining two or three Greek letters. The word sorority comes from the Latin word soror, which means sister.

There are four kinds of sororities: (1) general, or social, (2) professional, (3) honor societies, and (4) recognition societies. General sororities, the most common, encourage high academic standards, carry on charitable and educational programs, and sponsor social activities for members. On many campuses, they also provide room and board for members in sorority houses. Professional societies consist of persons with the same academic interest, such as education or journalism. Honor societies are for persons with exceptional academic records. Members of recognition societies have done outstanding work in a specific area. Some groups admit men. General sororities in the United States are listed in this article. For the largest professional, honor, and recognition societies, see FRATERNITY.

There are about 40 national general sororities in the United States. They have about 6,000 collegiate chapters (local units), about 10,300 alumnae chapters, and about 3,200,000 members. Twenty-six members belong to the National Panhellenic Conference, which has national headquarters in Indianapolis, Ind. This conference and similar groups promote cooperation among national sororities. Most university and college campuses have an intersorority council to regulate general sororities. Some general sororities have no college or alumnae chapters but are instead organized into local chapters.

There are 35 U.S. professional sororities and honor societies. They have more than 3,300 chapters and about 540,000 members. Some groups admit men.

Many school clubs, the forerunners of sororities, were formed during the 1800's. Adelphean began as a literary society at Wesleyan College, in Macon, Ga., in 1851. It adopted the name Alpha Delta Pi in 1905. Pi Beta Phi was organized as I. C. Sorosis at Monmouth College in Monmouth, Ill., in 1867. It was the first organization of college women established on a national basis.

Kappa Alpha Theta was the first group founded as a women's Greek-letter society. It began at DePauw University in 1870. Gamma Phi Beta, founded at Syracuse University in 1874, was the first to use the name sorority.

Contributor: Critically reviewed by National Panhellenic Conference

Grading is a method used by teachers to evaluate, record, and report student achievement. Most grades are given in the form of a number or letter. The most common numerical system uses percentages, with 100 as the highest mark and 65 or 70 as the lowest passing grade. The most widely used system of letter grades consists of the letters A, B, C, D, and E or F. The grade of A represents the highest achievement, and E or F means failure. Some schools use the numbers 4 for A, 3 for B, 2 for C, 1 for D, and O for E or F. Another system consists of the letters P (for pass) and F (for fail). Some schools use the letters O (outstanding), S (satisfactory), and NI (needs improvement).

Grades serve a number of purposes. They help teachers determine how well students have learned from their instruction. They help students learn about their strengths and weaknesses. Grades also inform parents about their children's progress and alert them to problems. Colleges use transcripts of grades to help decide whether to admit a student. Some employers use transcripts to help determine which applicants to hire.

A teacher may grade a student in comparison with perfect achievement, in relation to the student's ability, or in comparison with other members of the class. A common method of grading in relation to other students is called grading on the curve. Statistically, most students in a class that has a normal distribution of ability will do about average work. A smaller number will do very well or very poorly. One system of grading on the curve gives the top 7 per cent of the students an A. The next 24 per cent receive a B, the middle 38 per cent a C, and the next 24 per cent a D. The lowest 7 per cent get an E or F. The curve method of grading gets its name from a bell-shaped curve that represents normal distribution in statistics (see STATISTICS [Probability]). Educators do not recommend curve grading for groups of fewer than 100 students or groups with an unusual distribution of ability.

Other factors besides achievement also influence grades. They include neatness in written work, willingness to work, and effort put forth. Some schools give separate grades for achievement and for effort.

Some schools supplement grades with other forms of reporting. Many elementary schools provide conferences at which parents discuss their child's progress with the teacher. Few high schools have such conferences because no teacher knows about a student's work in all subjects. However, most schools provide opportunities for parents to discuss their child's work with individual instructors. The teachers at some institutions write comments on report cards or send detailed letters to the parents. A few schools give no grades at all but use other methods to report student achievement.

Many educators and others believe grades are stressed too much, and some propose that grades be abolished. Many people object to grading because it forces a teacher to summarize many achievements with a single symbol. Other critics argue that grades result from personal judgment and vary from teacher to teacher. People who favor grading point out that grades are the quickest and most efficient way to report student progress. They also argue that many students want such evaluations of their achievement. Most educators accept the necessity for grading and urge that present systems be improved.

Contributor: Richard M. Wolf, Ph.D., Prof. of Psychology and Education, Teachers College, Columbia Univ.

Testing, in education and psychology, is an attempt to measure a person's knowledge, intelligence, or other characteristics in a systematic way. There are many types of tests. Teachers give tests to discover the learning abilities of their students. They also give tests to see how well students have learned a particular subject. Some tests help people choose a vocation, and other tests help them understand their own personality.

Standardized tests

Most printed tests taken by students and others are standardized. A test has been standardized after it has been used, revised, and used again until it shows consistent results and average levels of performance have been established. Firms that prepare standardized tests include information with them on how to give and score each test. The results of one person's performance may be compared with those of many others who have taken the same test. Most teachers also use nonstandardized tests that they make up themselves. The quality of a test is judged by three major standards: (1) validity, (2) reliability, and (3) practicality.

Validity reflects how well a test measures what it is intended to measure. For example, a test of reading comprehension could lose validity if it allows too little time for taking the test. It might actually measure reading speed rather than comprehension.

Reliability refers to the consistency of results achieved by the test. To establish reliability, a test may be given to the same group several times. If very similar results are obtained each time, the test may be considered highly reliable.

Practicality involves the cost and convenience of the test. If a test requires too much expense or effort, it may be impractical. It also may be impractical if the results are too difficult to interpret.

Kinds of tests

Most tests are designed to measure one of several characteristics. These characteristics are (1) learning ability, (2) learning achievement, (3) aptitude and interest, or (4) personality.

Tests of learning ability attempt to predict how well an individual will perform in a situation requiring intellectual ability. These tests are sometimes called intelligence tests, mental ability tests, academic aptitude tests, or scholastic aptitude tests.

A learning ability test consists of a standard set of tasks or questions. It enables a student to demonstrate the skills learned throughout the individual's life, both in and out of school. Tests of learning ability do not measure how "bright" a person is. Educators use the terms intelligence and mental ability simply to describe a person's ability to solve certain kinds of problems typically involved in schoolwork. These terms do not reflect a person's ability in all areas. See INTELLIGENCE; INTELLIGENCE QUOTIENT.

Achievement tests try to measure how much an individual has learned about a particular subject, rather than the general ability for learning. Schools use achievement tests more than any other kind of test. Throughout elementary school, high school, and college, most teachers rely on such tests when rating a student's progress. Special achievement tests are used to license people in such professions as law, medicine, and accounting.

Many teachers prepare achievement tests that closely follow their own method of instruction. They also use standardized achievement tests. These tests are available on many subjects or topics, including division of fractions, American history before 1776, and chemical equations. Some schools ask students to take standardized achievement tests, as well as scholastic ability tests, for admission or placement.

There are two types of achievement tests--norm-referenced and criterion-referenced. In norm-referenced tests, each person's performance is compared with those of others who took the test. A student who answers some questions incorrectly would still rank high if most other students answered a larger number of questions incorrectly. But in criterion-referenced tests, each person's performance is compared with a predetermined standard or criterion. For example, a teacher might decide that 90 per cent of the questions on a test must be answered correctly for a student to earn a passing grade.

Aptitude and interest tests reveal an individual's talents or preferences for certain activities. A person who likes to tinker with machinery would probably score high on a test of mechanical aptitude. Such a person has an aptitude for mechanical work--and at least a fairly good chance of succeeding at it.

Interest tests are also known as interest inventories. In them, a person indicates a preference among large groups of activities, ideas, and circumstances. One of these tests might ask, "Would you rather fix a broken clock, keep a set of accounts, or paint a picture?" Most individuals prefer certain types of activities over others. The pattern of answers reveals the strength of a person's interest in various fields.

Personality tests attempt to measure an individual's personal traits scientifically. Some standardized personality tests consist of lists of personal questions requiring yes or no answers. The answers can be analyzed for various characteristics. For example, a person might score high in social introversion, which would indicate a strong preference for being alone. Such a person might find scientific research more satisfying as a career than teaching science in a classroom.

Another type of personality test, the projective test, requires individuals to tell what certain images mean to them. In a Rorschach test, for example, a person describes what he or she sees in a number of standardized inkblots. A trained counselor can often recognize behavioral tendencies in these descriptions. Psychologists use personality tests as clues for further study of an individual. They do not regard them as conclusive evidence about the individual's personality.

Most personality tests are less reliable and less valid than the other kinds of tests discussed here. Some people criticize their use as an invasion of privacy.

How to take a test

Knowing how to take tests does not increase anyone's learning ability or achievement. But it does help a person avoid losing points unnecessarily. Experts in testing offer the following suggestions:

1. Get all the experience you can in taking tests. The ability to take tests improves with practice.

2. Cramming before a test is better than no study at all. But a careful review spread over several days is better than cramming.

3. Be sure you understand the directions at the beginning of a test. You may get a lower score than you deserve because you failed to follow certain instructions.

4. Answer the questions that are easy for you, and then go back to the hard ones.

5. If there is no penalty for guessing, answer every question. If there is a penalty, you may still gain points by guessing some answers. On a multiple-choice question, for example, you may know enough about the subject to eliminate some answers. If so, your chance of guessing the correct answer improves considerably.