Suplementary data on higher education in the usa

Universities and colleges are schools that continue a person's education beyond high school. A university or college education helps men and women enjoy richer, more meaningful lives. It prepares many people for professional careers as doctors, engineers, lawyers, or teachers. It also gives a person a better appreciation of such fields as art, literature, history, human relations, and science. In doing so, a university or college education enables individuals to participate with greater understanding in community affairs.

Modern universities developed from the European universities of the Middle Ages. These institutions took their name from the Latin word universitas. This word referred to a group of people organized for a common purpose. Properly speaking, a school that is called a university should deal with nearly all fields of learning. But universities today may differ in the variety of their educational programs, and in their specialized fields of study. Most universities provide a wide range of graduate programs and have a number of undergraduate schools. They may also have graduate professional schools or colleges. But few universities teach as many branches of learning as the word university implies.

The first European colleges were merely groups of students who banded together through common interests. In English universities, colleges were formed to provide living quarters and a dining room for various groups of students. Usually these students took similar studies, and so the word college came to refer to a specific field of learning.

Harvard University, the oldest institution of higher learning in the United States, was established chiefly to prepare men for the ministry. Today, we would call such a school a seminary or theological school (see SEMINARY). Later, schools broadened their courses to teach the liberal arts (see LIBERAL ARTS). These became known as colleges of liberal arts. The first U.S. universities divided their courses into various fields of learning, and called the departments that taught each branch colleges or schools. Thus, the word college has come to have two meanings in the United States. It may refer to a part of a university that teaches a special branch of knowledge, or it may designate a separate institution that specializes in a single branch of knowledge.

The type of learning available at individual colleges can often be determined from their names. Liberal-arts colleges usually call themselves simply colleges. Other schools may be identified by such names as teachers colleges, agricultural colleges, or dental colleges. Modern universities have many kinds of colleges or schools, from liberal arts to law, medicine, theology, dentistry, and fine arts. Junior colleges--also called community colleges--mainly offer two-year programs. Some of these programs prepare a person for a semiprofessional career or occupation. After completing a junior college program, some students transfer to a "senior" college or to a university for additional study. See COMMUNITY COLLEGE.

Going to college

Most high school students at some time in their studies face two questions: "Should I attend college?" and "What college will serve my purposes best?" Students should take stock of their personal abilities and desires. They must decide whether or not they will receive specific preparation in college that will help them in their future work. For example, some students may find that special vocational training, rather than a college education, will better prepare them for the careers they want.

Decisions about attending college should be made only after serious thought about one's life goals. Individuals who enroll in college without being strongly motivated may find it difficult to be successful students. A person who decides against attending college must realize that such a decision does not necessarily prevent an individual from increasing in earning ability or social status.

Selecting a school. Students who decide to attend college must choose the school that most nearly fits their needs, finances, and personal likes. They can discover many of the facts by talking to friends and teachers. They can learn about particular schools by writing to them for information.

There are a number of basic questions a student should ask about any school being considered.

1. Does the school offer the courses in which I am interested?

2. How well is the school equipped in general buildings, libraries, laboratories, and other property?

3. What teaching methods does the school use? What is the average size of each class?

4. What is the standing of the school? Is it accredited? What is the standing of the particular college or department of the school in which I intend to do most of my work?

5. What are the school's tuition, fees, and living expenses? Are opportunities available for earning all, or part of, my expenses while I attend school?

6. Does the school offer the extracurricular (nonacademic) activities in which I am interested?

7. How is the school located with regard to transportation, living quarters, and general conveniences?

Entrance requirements of the various universities and colleges may differ considerably. In general, they require satisfactory completion of a high school curriculum. Most universities and colleges require that freshmen have taken certain courses in high schools. Many schools will not admit students whose high school grades are below a certain average. As more students seek to attend universities or colleges, entrance requirements tend to become higher. Many institutions require students to pass an entrance examination. Schools may also give students intelligence tests and aptitude tests for later counseling. For example, a student's adviser may use the results of the tests to guide the student's work. See COLLEGE ENTRANCE EXAMINATION.

Colleges and universities state their entrance requirements in their catalogs. They nearly always require a transcript (copy) of an applicant's high school credits, as well as letters of recommendation. Entrance examinations are generally given several months before the school term begins. Freshmen usually take the intelligence and aptitude tests during an orientation period, frequently called freshman week at colleges and universities in the United States.

People without a high school diploma should not assume that higher education is closed to them. Many colleges and universities admit men and women who have not completed high school. This procedure allows the schools to serve an increasing number of adults seeking continuing education. It also helps extend educational opportunities to such people as military veterans and members of minority groups. Before enrolling such applicants, the university or college evaluates their work experience and reviews their scores on special tests. These tests are designed to measure whether a person's knowledge is equivalent to that of an average high school graduate.

Accrediting. A prospective college student should know the standing of the institution he or she intends to enter. Colleges and universities in the United States are accredited by six regional accrediting authorities. They are the Middle States Association of Colleges and Schools, the New England Association of Schools and Colleges, the North Central Association of Colleges and Schools, the Northwest Association of Schools and Colleges, the Southern Association of Colleges and Schools, and the Western Association of Schools and Colleges. These authorities base their judgment on the equipment, financial status, requirements, and teaching standards of the schools. The authorities are recognized by the Council on Postsecondary Accreditation.

Professional societies accredit the various professional schools. For example, the American Medical Association accredits medical schools. State boards of education also accredit schools in their states. Students may use credits from approved schools in order to obtain teaching certificates and professional licenses within the state.

For a list of the accredited, degree-granting universities and colleges in any U.S. state except Alaska, Nevada, or Wyoming, see the Universities and colleges table in the separate World Book article on the state. A similar table appears in the articles on WASHINGTON, D.C., and PUERTO RICO. For the accredited universities and colleges in Alaska, Nevada, and Wyoming, see the Schools section in each of the articles on those states. See also the World Book article on CANADA (Education) for a discussion of higher education in Canada.

College costs vary widely. Most college catalogs list the average living costs for one year, the tuition, and other fees. In the mid-1990's, the average cost of tuition, fees, room, and board at public universities was about $6,500 for all students. The cost for residents averaged less than this amount, and that for nonresidents was higher. The cost at private universities averaged about $16,700 for all students.

Working your way. Many college students earn all or part of their expenses. Many students have part-time jobs while they attend school, such as working in stores and restaurants. Most schools offer students jobs, such as waiting on tables in dormitories or working in the library. Schools often operate employment bureaus to help find part-time jobs for their students. Some students work during their summer vacations, and others drop out of college for a time to work. Many husbands or wives of students work to help their spouses pay their expenses. Sometimes both spouses are students and work part-time.

Financial help. Students may receive all or part of their college expenses through various aid programs. These programs include scholarships and fellowships; federal, state, and private loan programs; and benefits for veterans and certain other groups such as war orphans. There are so many programs of this kind that almost every college and university has a financial aid office to serve its students. A prospective student who needs financial assistance should consult this office at the schools he or she is considering. In general, there are enough financial aid programs to make it possible for any person to attend some college or university in spite of financial problems. See FELLOWSHIP; SCHOLARSHIP.

Kinds of universities and colleges

Universities and colleges in the United States may be classified as (1) those operating under private sponsorship, and (2) those operating under public sponsorship. Private institutions may be church-related or nonsectarian. Public institutions may be sponsored by local government, state government, or the federal government. The military academies are examples of federally supported institutions. Most private liberal arts colleges are church-related, while most privately sponsored universities are not now associated with any church. Most public universities are sponsored by state governments. Most junior or community colleges are sponsored by local governments.

Income. All universities and colleges receive funds from a variety of sources. Private colleges depend primarily on student fees and on endowments and gifts for their operating income. Public institutions also have these sources, but depend mainly on state and local taxes for operating funds. Both public and private institutions may receive federal funds for research activities. The federal government distributes aid among colleges and universities according to various formulas. These formulas are based on the number of students in scholarship and loan programs, and on the enrollment of graduate students and veterans.

Both public and private institutions receive funds for construction from several sources. These sources include federal, state, and local grants or loans; gifts; student fees; and endowments.

Governing boards. Most universities and colleges are controlled by a board of trustees or a board of regents. Boards of trustees of private institutions usually elect their own members. The church body may elect the trustees of a church-related institution. The alumni association of a private institution often elects some of the trustees. The trustees of public institutions are usually appointed by the governor of the state. The voters sometimes elect the trustees or regents.

Boards of trustees or regents approve educational policies. They also appoint the chief administrative officer of the institution. In some states, coordinating committees and boards exercise supervision over those institutions financially assisted by the state.

Most church-related colleges except seminaries admit students of any religious denomination. Some of them expect all students to attend chapel exercise and to study some religious courses. But some church-related colleges apply these rules only to students of the same religious faith.

In the United States, the federal government has encouraged the development of universities and colleges since the time of the Northwest Ordinance of 1787. The Morrill Act of 1862 provided land grants to all states to support colleges that, among other subjects, would teach agriculture and the mechanical arts. In some instances, these land grants were given to existing state universities. In other cases, new institutions were established. Many are now major universities.

Seven Canadian provinces sponsor and support universities. Some provinces have also founded technical, agricultural, and junior colleges. The first provincial university was the University of Toronto. It was founded in 1827 as King's College.

School organization

Campus is the land on which a college or university stands. The main buildings on a campus usually include classroom buildings, an administration building, a library, laboratories, a gymnasium, an athletic field and stadium, and dormitories. Many institutions have a building, often called a union, where social gatherings, plays, and dances may be held. Many of today's universities and colleges have more than one campus.

Administration. The organization of state, province, and city-supported institutions is generally about the same as that of other universities and colleges. They usually offer about the same courses of study, although state institutions often emphasize technical and professional education more than private schools.

In most cases, a president or chancellor is the chief administrator of a university or college. Other officials handle educational programs, registration, management of funds, and collection of tuition. A dean of students helps direct discipline and advise students.

Each college or separate school of a university generally has an academic dean or director. He or she leads the faculty in preparing the course of study for the college or school, and takes part in university planning.

Faculty includes the teachers of a college or university. A college's faculty is divided into departments. Each department deals with one general course of study, such as English, mathematics, or physics. Each department has a chairman, who is usually a professor. Under the chairman are other professors, associate professors, assistant professors, and instructors. Some departments also have teaching fellows or research fellows. These are graduate students who teach or do research part-time. Some faculties include scientists or other workers whose main activity is research, not teaching. Their research is supported by the institution or by funds granted the institution by individuals or groups having specific research interests. The institutions do much research under contract with the federal government.

The student body of a university or college is divided into graduates and undergraduates. Graduates have already received their bachelor's degree and are working more or less independently for a master's or doctor's degree. Undergraduates are studying for their bachelor's degree. The undergraduates belong to one of four classes--freshman, sophomore, junior, and senior--according to year of study. Most schools also admit special students. These students take a number of courses, but do not work toward a degree.

Most institutions are coeducational, with both men and women students. Others admit students of only one sex. A coordinate institution generally has separate men's and women's colleges. They are controlled by the same central authority and are usually located on the same or nearby campuses. See COEDUCATION.

The calendar is the program of a school year. It is divided according to one of three systems. The most common system divides the calendar into two semesters of about 16 weeks each. The first semester begins in August or September. The second semester begins in January or early February. The school year ends in May or June with commencement, or graduation exercises (see GRADUATION). Many schools also hold a six- to eight-week summer session. By attending school all year, students may graduate in three years instead of four.

In the quarter system, the year is divided into four quarters of 10, 11, or 12 weeks each. The first quarter begins in the fall. Winter holidays come between the first and second quarters, and spring holidays between the second and third. Many students do not attend the fourth, or summer, quarter. The trimester system divides the year into three trimesters of about 15 weeks each.

Selecting courses

Curriculum. The courses given by a college or university are called the school's curriculum. The catalog of the institution outlines the complete curriculum. It gives the requirements for taking each course, as well as the credits given. Each course is designated as giving a specified number of credits. These usually equal the number of class hours devoted each week to the course. For example, a course that meets three times a week usually gives three credits for graduation. Schools using the semester calendar require about 120 credits for graduation. Between 30 and 40 of the required credits must be earned in the student's major subject.

Institutions vary considerably in the amount of freedom given students in selecting their courses. Almost all colleges and universities have a certain number of required subjects. Students usually can also choose nonrequired courses called electives. Liberal arts colleges usually give a student more opportunity to choose courses than do professional schools.

When college freshmen register, they usually indicate the major subject they want to study. Some students may take high-school level remedial courses before they enroll in freshman level courses. During the first two years of college, students take largely the basic required courses, such as English composition. The last two years are devoted mostly to the student's major. Many schools permit a student to have two majors.

Undergraduate study. The programs of study provided by universities and colleges are divided into undergraduate and graduate levels. Most colleges offer few, if any, graduate programs. Undergraduate programs usually require four years to complete. Some engineering programs and most architectural programs require five years. Undergraduate study may be in the arts and sciences, or in a discipline such as English, economics, or chemistry. Undergraduate programs may also be given in a professional field such as agriculture, teacher education, or business administration.

Graduate study may also be in the arts and sciences, or in a profession. It ordinarily begins only after a person has completed undergraduate study. Some professional fields will only admit a student who has completed undergraduate study. This is generally true of medicine, law, dentistry, and theology.

Graduate study is more intensive and specialized than undergraduate study. It usually involves more reading and some research experience. The time required to earn a graduate degree is usually three years in law and theology and four years in medicine. But some graduate programs may be completed in one or two years.

Degrees. The bachelor of arts or bachelor of science degree is the common degree for completing a four- or five-year program. One or two years of graduate study are usually required for the master of arts or master of science degree. A doctor's degree signifies more extensive graduate study. Many institutions also award honorary degrees for outstanding achievement in a profession or in public service. See DEGREE, COLLEGE.