Interpreting test scores

There are several points to keep in mind about test scores. First, a test reflects only a sample of a person's skill or knowledge, not everything about an individual. A test score can tell only how well the person performed on one particular test on one particular day.

Second, a score on a standardized test compares one person's performance with the performance of others. Such a comparison may provide useful information if all the people taking the test are alike in some important way. Most standardized tests give scores for persons of the same age or in the same grade.

Third, every test score is an estimate rather than a precise measurement. To remind people of this, some scores are reported as bands rather than as a single number. The bands show the range in which a person's actual ability probably lies.

Testing often has far-reaching effects, and so it receives much attention from educators and social scientists. Criticism has been directed both at the limitations of tests and at their influence.

Some educators believe multiple-choice tests penalize a student who has an expert knowledge of a subject. Such a student may see flaws in the answer generally accepted as correct. Other critics say that standardized tests discriminate against disadvantaged and minority groups. These students may be unfamiliar with words, terms, and concepts used in the tests. To give these students an equal chance, educators have tried to prepare culture-fair or culture-free tests. Such tests might consist of pictures, symbols, and nonsense syllables that are equally unfamiliar to everyone. This type of test reduces the influence of cultural background on performance. Tests that use no words are called nonverbal tests.

The general effect of testing on education has also caused concern. Standardized tests sometimes lag behind educational thought and practice. If tests do not measure the content of new programs, they may fail to encourage educational progress.

Many educators believe there is at least some truth in criticisms of tests. But they also know that testing is necessary in teaching. Tests can determine whether one method of teaching works better than another. Tests can also tell a teacher what help a student needs most. No better way has been found to determine how much students have learned, what they seem able to learn, and how quickly they might learn it.

Contributor: James Crouse, Ph.D., Prof. of Educational Studies, Univ. of Delaware.

Additional resources

Conoley, Jane C., and Impara, J. C., eds. Mental Measurements Yearbook. 12th ed. Buros Inst. of Mental Measurements, 1995.

Gronlund, Norman E. How to Make Achievement Tests and Assessments. 5th ed. Allyn & Bacon, 1993.

Groth-Marnat, Gary. Handbook of Psychological Assessment. 2nd ed. Wiley, 1990.

McCullough, Virginia E. Testing and Your Child. NAL, 1992.

LIBRARY/College, university, and research libraries

College and university libraries. The library is a major resource of any modern institution of higher education. College students study such a vast, fast-changing body of knowledge that few courses can be taught with one, two, or even half a dozen textbooks. Research occupies a significant place in life at colleges--both two- and four-year schools--and at universities. The library has a vital role in this search for knowledge. It serves as a workshop for the entire college or university, students and faculty alike.

In the early 1990's, the United States had about 3,300 college and university libraries. These libraries owned about 717 million books, employed about 100,000 staff members, and spent about $31/4 billion annually. Canada had 365 college and university libraries. The world's largest university library system, with more than 12 million volumes, is at Harvard University.

A college or university library is a complex institution. It must have large quantities of materials to meet the demands of both students and faculty. Such materials include books, magazines, newspapers, videotapes, and photographs. Many university libraries have collections that are devoted to highly specialized subjects. For example, the libraries on the various campuses of the University of California have special research collections on astronomy, oceanography, California history, citrus fruits, east Asia, early English literature, and Latin America. Other university libraries have separate buildings for rare books or original manuscripts.

A large university may have as many as 50 or more libraries in various departments, schools, and branches. An entire library may be devoted to a single field of study, such as biology, education, music, or psychology. Such specialization of libraries helps students locate in-depth materials on major courses of study.

Since the 1960's, however, colleges and universities have moved away from highly specialized libraries. Many libraries today cover broad areas, such as the physical sciences or the humanities. These libraries enable students and professors to find information in various related fields. For example, a music student can easily research the historical events during a particular musician's career in this type of library.

College and university libraries must make new information immediately available to their patrons. But information increases faster today than at any other time in history. For this reason, college and university libraries have expanded their storage space to accommodate new materials. Many schools have rebuilt their libraries to hold more books than before. In addition, libraries may have magazines and newspapers stored on microfilm instead of in large volumes. Most college and university libraries use computers to keep track of thevast amounts of information they collect.

In the past, many university libraries devoted their attention to the needs of graduate students and faculty. Undergraduates often lacked resources for their studies. However, an explosion of college students since the 1950's has resulted in more library resources for undergraduates. Many universities have built separate libraries for undergraduate students.

Student government is an activity in which students take part in the government of their school, college, or university. This activity usually takes place through a student organization, often called a student council. The organization may also be called a student cabinet, student congress, student legislature, or G.O. (general organization). Most high schools, colleges, and universities have some form of student government.

Students elect representatives to the council or governing board. The council or governing board may meet with the faculty and administration to discuss curriculum, student benefits, alumni relations, and other matters of interest to the students. A faculty member may serve as sponsor or adviser.

Student government activities include sponsoring scholarship and award programs; coordinating student activities; and organizing assembly programs, conferences, lectures, and other cultural events. In addition, student governments have fought for students' rights, including an end to racial and sexual discrimination in college admissions. Student governments may sponsor student courts, conduct work projects and faculty evaluations, and help manage such student services as cafeterias and health centers. A student government also may organize community projects and travel programs.

About 10,000 high schools in the United States belong to the National Association of Student Councils (NASC), which distributes information about student government. Headquarters of the association are at 1904 Association Drive, Reston, VA 22091.

Several hundred collegiate student organizations belong to the United States National Student Association (USNSA). This association sponsors an annual conference and other meetings on student and world problems. USNSA delegates represent United States students at international meetings. The association's headquarters are at 2115 S Street NW, Washington, DC 20008. Other national student groups include the National Student Lobby, the Coalition of Independent College and University Students, and the National Association of Students in State Colleges and Universities. In addition, there are many state organizations and other special student groups.

Contributor: Critically reviewed by the National Association of Student Councils

THE OLDEST U.S. UNIVERSITIES AND COLLEGES

Name Location # Year

Harvard University Cambridge, Mass. 1636

William and Mary, College of Williamsburg, Va. 1693

Yale University New Haven, Conn. 1701

Princeton University Princeton, N.J. 1746

Columbia University New York City 1754

University of Pennsylvania Philadelphia 1757

Brown University Providence, R.I. 1764

Rutgers, The State University New Brunswick, N.J. 1766

of New Jersey

Dartmouth College Hanover, N.H.