1. Equivalence. ( lexical and pragmatic aspects to be conveyed)

Using the definition provided by Vinay & Darbelnet (1995:31), we can describe equivalence as the process of replacing elements in the ST with corresponding elements in the TT so as to "replicate the same situation as in the original whilst using completely different wording" (/b/d:342). We would use such an approach if translating more directly would result in a translation which loses meaning or impact, or which is missing the idiomaticity or flow of a corresponding text originally produced in the target language.

In contrast to the more conventional notion of equivalence, which would take several volumes to define and explain, equivalence as a translation procedure simply involves finding the TL counterpart for a particular SL word or phrase. We can use it, for example, to replace fixed expressions or formulaic phrases, idioms or proverbs. More specifically, in the case of technical texts we can use this procedure as a way of translating elements such as warning signs and labels.

• Danger! -> Risk of Death - Опасность

• Wet Paint -> Freshly Painted – Окрашено!

2. Transposition/Recategorization/Replacement

Transposition or recategorization is the process of replacing one class or type of word in the ST with another type of word in the TT without changing the meaning. This sounds complicated but, in reality, it is quite simple and most people will find it reasonably intuitive. This procedure is usually needed because of differences in the way information is expressed in the SL and the TL, and maintaining the same word class would result in a translation that is awkward or unintelligible. Some transpositions are obligatory; for example, where the SL may have a noun describing a particular process or object, while the TL can only convey this information using a descriptive phrase. Other transpositions are optional and may be chosen simply to improve the style or flow of the TT. Examples of transpositions include:

• Nominalizations (noun to verb): "The regulation of the heating system is carried out by the main computer" vs. "The main computer regulates the heating system"

• Passive to active: "The new standard was approved by all member states" vs. "All member states approved the new standard".

• Passive to imperative: safety mechanism is engaged prior to performing maintenance work" vs. "Engage the safety mechanism before carrying out maintenance work".

Replacement is any change in the target text at the morphological, lexical and syntactic levels of the language when the elements of certain source paradigms are replaced by different elements of target paradigms.

It seems worth to discuss again the example from our previous lecture on language paradigms. Let us consider sentences in English and in Russian: He used to come to Italy each spring and Обычно он приезжал в Италию каждую весну.

The following paradigms were used to form these sentences and the following paradigm elements were activated in syntagmas during their formation (viz. Table below).

Names of Paradigms Used to Form the Sentences	Elements Activated in the Sentence
	English	Russian
Personal Pronouns Paradigm	he	Он
Verbs Paradigm	used, come	Приезжал
Verbs Tense Paradigm	Past. Indef.	Прошед. Время
Particles Paradigm	to	-
Prepositions Paradigm	to	В
Noun Paradigm	Italy, spring	Италия, весна
Adjectives Paradigm	each	Каждый
Adverbs Paradigm	none	Обычно
Noun Cases Paradigm	Common Case	Род. падеж
Adjective Cases Paradigm	none	Род. падеж

Comparing the paradigm sets used to form the above English and Russian sentences and paradigm elements activated in the syntagmas of these sentences one may easily spot numerous replacements.

Of interest for student translators are changes observed in Complex Sentences where transposition of the Subjects is combined with their mutual replacement. To prove the statement, let us consider the following example:

No sooner did he start his speech than the President was interrupted. - \ Не успел президент начать свою речь, как его прервали.

The replacements are necessary because English and Russian possess different language systems. It goes without saying that this fact is very important for translation and explains many translation problems.

Thus, replacement is a universal and widely used translation device. I One may even say that replacements in that or another form are observed in any translation from English into Russian and even more so - from Russian into English.