Геофизические методы при поисках залежей нефти и газа

Методы геофизических исследований при поисках залежей нефти и газа и при изучении геологического строения нефтегазоносных областей основаны на изучении и анализе физических полей, отражающих различные особенности строения земной коры. При геофизических исследованиях изучаются естественные поля земной коры: магнитное, гравитационное, тепловое, радиоактивное, электрические и упругие свойства пород.

Полевые геофизические (гравиразведка, магнито- и электроразведка, геотермия, радиометрия) методы широко используются на всех стадиях поисков. Для изучения глубинного строения перспективных на нефть и газ площадей и подготовки их к поисковому бурению используется главным образом сейсморазведка методом отраженных волн. Этот метод позволяет производить геофизическое картирование погребенных структур и сложных поверхностей эрозионного или рифогенного происхождения.

Для выявления структур в определенных геологических условиях применяется электроразведка и гравиметрическая разведка.

Гравиметрическая разведка основана на изучении поля силы тяжести, измеряемой специальными приборами – гравиметрами. Аномалии гравитационного поля определяются распределением массы относительно легких и тяжелых пород. Магнитная разведка основана на изучении аномалий геомагнитного поля, которое обусловлено различными магнитными свойствами горных пород в земной коре. Электроразведка используется для картирования горизонтов, сложенных соленосными сульфатными и карбонатными породами. Эти породы обладают бесконечно высоким сопротивлением. Сейсморазведка основана на изучении характера распространения упругих волн в толще пород. Радиометрия как поисковый метод основана на изучении излучений горных пород и почв, которые обусловлены распадом в основном естественных радиоактивных элементов семейств урана и тория, а также радиоактивного изотопа калия.

С. Discussion

Topics:

1. Two principle seismic methods: refraction and reflection.

2. Stratigraphic exploration: various kinds of logs and their aims.

3. Maps enabling petroleum explorers to locate oil and gas.

Unit 3. Computer Assisted Exploration

Active Vocabulary

1.	modeling	построение модели, моделирование
2.	logging	геофизические исследования в скважинах, каротаж, регистрация (результатов испытаний)
3.	visualization	придание зрительной формы
4.	commitment	обязательство, затраты
5.	accomplishments	достижения
6.	instrumentation	контрольно-измерительные приборы
8.	downtime	время вынужденного простоя
9.
10.	field-development	разработка месторождения
11.	deconvolution	деконволюция, обратная фильтпация
12.	coherent	связный, последовательный
13.	prolonged	длительный
14.	cost-effective	рентабельный
15.	tremendously	очень, крайне, чрезвычайно
16.	to highlight	выделять, выдвигать на первый план
17.	to manipulate	зд. обрабатывать
18.	to assemble	составлять, собирать
19.	to utilize	использовать
21.	to justify	оправдывать, подтверждать
22.	to feed	зд.подавать
23.	to amalgamate	объединять
24.	to condense	сжимать, уменьшать в объеме
25.	to reduce uncertainties	уменьшить неопределенность
26.	to tune	настраивать, регулировать
27.	to accelerate	ускорять
28.	seismic imaging	сейсморазведочное построение
29.	two-dimensional picture	двумерное изображение
30.	field data	промысловые данные
31.	production information	производственная информация
34.	a significant probability	значительная вероятность
35.	recovery rate	коэффициент нефтеотдачи, величина нефтеотдачи
36.	logical progression	логическая последовательность
37.	sequence of data	ряд данных
38.	depletion rate	скорость истощения (месторождения)
39.	seismic readings	сейсмические показания
40.	velocity filtering	скоростная фильтрация
41.	accompanying improvements	сопроводительные усовершенствования
42.	levels of magnitude	уровни магнитуды
43.	enhanced-oil-recovery strate­gies	усовершенствованные стратегии добычи нефти
44.	streamer per swath	сейсмическая коса на полосу
45.	time-lapse	цейтраферный (относится к киноизображению, когда медленное движение, например, изображение раскрывающегося бутона цветка, как-будто ускоряется)
46.	productive life	срок рентабельной эксплуатации
47.	bypassed oil and gas	запасы нефти и газа (разбуренные, но не извлеченные)
	prior to	до, перед
	in some estimates	по некоторым оценкам
	in conjunction	в соединении

One of the greatest innovations in the history of oil and natural gas exploration is the use of computers to assemble vast amounts of geologic data into a coherent "map" of the underground. This technology is referred to as computer assisted exploration, or CAEX.

Data used in CAEX is obtained from logging, from production information, and from gravimetric tests. The data is then manipulated to create a visualization of underground formations.

There are three main types of computer assisted exploration models: two-dimensional (2-D), 3-D and, most recently, 4-D. These imaging techniques rely mainly on seismic data acquired in the field and are becoming increasingly sophisticated. 3-D seismic imaging utilizes field data to generate three-dimensional pictures of underground formations, allowing scientists and engineers to better understand the composition of the earth's crust in a particular area. This is tremendously useful in oil and natural gas exploration and has increased the success rate of exploration by, in some estimates, 50 percent or better.

Although this technology is very useful, it is also very costly because 3-D imaging requires data to be collected from thousands of locations. As such, 3-D is a much more involved and prolonged process, and is usually used in conjunction with other exploration techniques. For example, a geophysicist may use less costly 2-D modeling to identify geologic features with a significant probability for containing oil and natural gas deposits. 3-D imaging may then be employed in those areas of highest probability.

In addition to broadly locating oil and gas reservoirs, 3-D allows for more accurate placement of wells. This increases the productivity of successful wells, allowing for more oil and natural gas to be extracted from the ground. In fact, 3-D can increase the recovery rates of productive wells to 40-50 percent, as opposed to 25-30 percent with traditional 2-D exploration techniques.

2-D Seismic Imaging

Two-dimensional computer assisted exploration includes generating an image of subsurface geology much in the same manner as in normal 2-D data interpretation. However, with the aid of advanced computer technology, it is possible to generate much more detailed maps more quickly than the traditional method. In addition, with 2-D CAEX it is possible to use color graphic displays generated by a computer to highlight geologic features that may not be apparent using traditional methods.

While 2-D seismic imaging is less complicated and less detailed than 3-D imaging, it must be noted that 3-D imaging techniques were developed prior to 2-D techniques. Thus, although it does not appear to be the logical progression of techniques, the simpler 2-D imaging techniques were actually an extension of 3-D techniques, not the other way around. Because it is simpler, 2-D imaging is much cheaper, and more easily and quickly performed, than 3-D imaging. Because of this, 2-D imaging may be used in areas that are somewhat likely to contain oil and natural gas deposits, but not likely enough to justify the full cost and time commitment required by 3-D imaging.

4-D Seismic Imaging

This type of imaging is an extension of 3-D imaging technology. However, in 4-D, various seismic readings of a particular area are taken at different times, and this sequence of data is fed into a powerful computer. The different images are amalgamated to create a "movie" of what is going on underground over time. By studying how seismic images change over time, geologists can gain a better understanding of many properties of the rock, including underground fluid flow, viscosity, temperature and saturation. While 4-D imaging is very important in the exploration process, it can also be used to evaluate the properties of a reservoir, including the depletion rate once extraction has begun.

A. Comprehension

Answer the questions:

1. What is one of the greatest innovations in the history of oil and gas exploration?

2. What does the abbreviation CAEX stand for?

3. Where are data used in CAEX obtained from?

4. What are the three main types of computer assisted exploration models? What do they rely on?

5. Why is 3-D seismic imaging extremely useful in oil and gas exploration?

6. Why is it very expensive?

7. How much can 3-D increase the recovery rates of productive wells?

8. What type of imaging is an extension of 3-D?

9. What advantages does 2-D seismic imaging have over the traditional method and 3-D imaging?

10. How can geologists gain a better understanding of properties of the rock?

B. Vocabulary Practice

I. Give English equivalents for:

1) собирать огромное количество геологических данных; 2) полученные данные; 3) визуализация подземных образований; 4) компьютерная разведка месторождений; 5) гравиметрическая проба; 6) средства формирования изображения; 7) становятся все более сложными; 8) использовать промысловые данные; 9) увеличить темп поисково-разведочных работ; 10) по некоторым оценкам; 11) дорогостоящая технология; 12) по существу; 13) сложный и продолжительный процесс; 14) вместе с другими методами поиска и разведки; 15) более дешевое двумерное моделирование; 16) более точное размещение; 17) изображение геологического строения разреза; 18) цветное графическое изображение; 19) логическая последовательность методов; 20) не наоборот; 21) весьма вероятно; 22) сейсмические данные; 23) изменяться со временем; 24) скорость истощения месторождения; 25) ряд данных

II. Give Russian equivalents for:

1) a coherent ‘map’; 2) obtained from logging; 3) most recently; 4) field data; 5) has increased by 50 percent or better; 6) to be collected from thousands of location; 7) to identify geologic features; 8) a significant probability; 9) broadly locating oil and gas reservoirs; 10) the productivity of successful wells; 11) as opposed to 25-30 percent; 12) were developed prior to 2-D techniques; 13) an extension of 3-D techniques; 14) not likely enough; 15) time commitment; 16) this sequence of data is fed into a powerful computer; 17) the different images are amalgamated; 18) to evaluate the properties of a reservoir; 19) it must be noted; 20) easily and quickly performed; 21) involved process; 22) accurate placement; 23) not the other way around; 24) somewhat likely to contain; 25) to justify the full cost.

III. Fill in the appropriate word(s) from the list below into the extracts and translate them into Russian:

a) optimizing, imaging, surveying, industry, acquisition, programs

The concept of 3D-seismic … has existed since the earliest days of geophysics. However, the ability to implement that concept was restricted by the efficiency and accuracy of data … and the cost and computing power necessary to condense, process, display, and help interpret data. All that changed in just over 1 decade and made 3D seismic a reliable and cost-effective method … field development and management. By the early 1970s, the … had developed a data-processing arsenal that contained, among other things, … for single and multichannel processing, deconvolution, velocity filtering, automated statics, velocity analysis, migration, inversion, and noise reduction. These processing accomplishments and the accompanying improvements in data collection advanced seismic prospecting by levels of magnitude, but … methods were still 2D.

b) possible, reduce, technology, interpretation, development, turnaround, fluid, model

Today, 3D-seismic … is applied to solve problems and … uncertainties across the entire range of exploration, …, and production operations. Surveys are used to characterize and … reservoirs, to plan and execute enhanced-oil-recovery strategies, and to monitor … movement in reservoirs as they are developed and produced. These capabilities have been made … by advancements in data acquisition, processing, and … that have both improved accuracy and reduced … time.

c) amount, reduced, instrumentation, navigation, dramatically, price

Reduction in 3D data-acquisition time has reduced the … of 3D data and … increased the … of data available. Better and more reliable…, better and more streamers per swath, improved and faster … processing, and onboard quality control and data processing have dramatically … downtime.

d) extraction, series, productive, rates, properties, monitor

Time-lapse or 4D, seismic, consists of a … of 3D-seismic surveys repeated over time to … how reservoir … (such as fluids, temperature, and pressure) change throughout the … life. Consequently, fluid movements can be anticipated before they affect production. Similarly, placement of … and injector wells can be fine tuned, bypassed oil and gas can be recovered, and production … can be accelerated.

IV. Match the following terms with their definitions and give their Russian equivalents:

magnitude, innovation, crust, graphic, technology, geophysics, exploration, saturation, depletion, productivity

1. The study of the earth’s physical properties and of the physical processes acting upon, above, and within the earth.

2. The strength of an earthquake, measured with numbers from 1 to 10 where 10 is the most powerful.

3. The application of practical sciences to industry or commerce; the methods, theory, and practices governing such application.

4. A mathematical means of expressing the ability of a reservoir to deliver fluids to the wellbore.

5. The relative amount of water, oil and gas in the pores of a rock, usually as a percentage of volume.

6. The drop in hydrocarbon reserves resulting from production of reservoir fluids.

7. The initial phase in petroleum operations that includes generation of a prospect or accumulation or both, and drilling of an exploration well.

8. The solid outer shell of the earth, with an average thickness of 30-35 km in continental regions and 5 km beneath the oceans, forming the upper part of the lithosphere and lying immediately above the mantle.

9. Something newly introduced, such as a new method or device.

10. Of or relating to writing or other inscribed representations.

V. Explain in English the following terms using a specialized dictionary or glossary, give their Russian equivalents and make up your own sentences with them:

computer assisted exploration, gravimetric tests, visualization, 2-D modeling, successful well, subsurface geology, seismic images, placement of well

VI. Give English translation for:

Трехмерная и четырехмерная сейсморазведка

При проведении трехмерной сейсморазведки область разведки делят на горизонтальные квадраты, называемые общими глубинными площадками. Все отражения, средняя точка которых оказывается на определенной площадке, учитываются при суммировании методом общей средней точки. Их сумма – это количество средних точек на каждой площадке. Размеры площадок обычно составляют 55х55 или 110х110 фут (20х20 или 30х30 м).

После компьютерной обработки получают трехмерное изображение недр. В данном случае миграция дает значительно более точные результаты и детали видны значительно лучше, чем на двухмерной диаграмме.

Для демонстрации трехмерных сейсмограмм в трех измерениях существуют специальные помещения, называемые центрами визуализации (имеется еще несколько других названий). В одном из вариантов зал визуализации оснащен экранами, которые размещены на стенах. Зрители надевают стереоскопические очки и садятся в кресла. Оператор проецирует изображение на экраны и может его перемещать. Другой тип залов подразумевает наличие экранов как на трех стенах, так и на полу. Зритель как бы попадает внутрь трехмерного изображения и может пройти по нему. Когда он поворачивает голову или движется, вся структура поворачивается вместе с ним в соответствии с перспективой.

Затраты на проведение трехмерной сейсморазведки очень велики из-за стоимости оборудования и компьютерной обработки. Однако в настоящее время трехмерная сейсморазведка используется чаще, чем двухмерная. Она снижает затраты на бурение, уменьшая число сухих скважин, и затраты на разработочное бурение, так как точно известно местоположение подземного коллектора.

Четырехмерная сейсморазведка, или сейсмический мониторинг, использует несколько трехмерных разведок одного и того же продуктивного коллектора с различными (например, 2 года) временными интервалами, для того чтобы проследить потоки флюидов через коллектор. По мере эксплуатации коллектора изменяются температура, давление и состав флюидов. Растворенный газ выделяется из нефти, вода замещает газ и нефть. Сравнивают временные срезы коллекторов, при этом зафиксированные изменения сейсмических показателей, например амплитуды, позволяют проследить изменение состояния коллектора. Можно обнаружить недобытые нефтяные карманы и пробурить новые скважины для их разработки.

C. Discussion

Topics:

1. Imaging techniques purposes;

2. The advantages of each of three imaging techniques (2-D, 3-D, 4-D);

3. Debate the proposition “One of the greatest innovations in the history of oil and natural gas exploration is the use of computers”.

Unit 4. Well logging

Active vocabulary

1.	caliper	скважинный профиломер; каверномер; нутромер
2.	scope	границы, рамки, пределы
3.	readout	снятие показаний с приборов
4.	flux	флюс, поток, течение
5.	potassium	калий
6.	axis - axes	ось - оси; осевая линия
7.	stake	стержень
8.	coil	катушка, обмотка
9.	fluorescence	флуоресценция
10.	vessel	сосуд; резервуар; баллон; контейнер (для жидкостей или газов)
11.	lowering	спуск
12.	coring	отбор керна, взятие керновой пробы; выбуривание керна; получение колонки породы; колонковое бурение; бурение с отбором керна
13.	voltage	вольтаж, электрическое напряжение, разность потенциалов
14.	sonde	зонд; каротажный заряд (спускаемый в скважину)
15.	SP logging	каротаж СП (потенциала самопроизвольной поляризации)
16.	directional log	инклинограмма, диаграмма инклинометрии (скважины)
17.	mud log	1. диаграмма удельного сопротивления бурового раствора 2. журнал записи результатов исследования бурового раствора (из скважины)
18.	monitor log	контрольная каротажная диаграмма
19.	bore hole	буровая скважина; ствол скважины; скважина большого диаметра
20.	down hole	наклонная скважина (в отличие от горизонтальных и восстающих); забой скважины
21.	neutron capture	захват нейтронов
22.	hard copy	технологическая карта; документ с технологическими данными; машинописная копия; распечатка; документальная копия
23.	oil staining	следы нефти
24.	ultraviolet chamber	отсек, камера ультрафиолетовой лампы (где вода непосредственно подвергается облучению)
25.	secondary current	вторичный ток
26.	electric current	электрический ток
27.	sound generator	генератор звука
28.	logging run	проход (спуск и подъем) каротажного зонда
29.	formation evaluation	оценка пластовых свойств
30.	air drilling	бурение с очисткой забоя воздухом (без бурового раствора)
31.	electric voltage	электрическое напряжение
32.	strip chart	ленточная диаграмма
33.	density logging	плотностной каротаж
34.	magnetic logging	магнитный каротаж
35.	temperature logging	термокаротаж
36.	mechanical logging	механический каротаж
37.	induction logging	индукционный каротаж
38.	nuclear logging	радиоактивный каротаж
39.	caliper logging	измерение диаметра скважины; снятие кавернограммы
40.	mud logging	анализ проб бурового раствора; геохимические и геофизические исследования в скважинах по буровому раствору и шламу; газовый каротаж
41.	wireline logging	кабельный каротаж
42.	resistivity logging	каротаж сопротивления
43.	gamma-ray logging	гамма-каротаж
44.	neutron logging	нейтронный каротаж; нейтронометрия скважин
45.	armored	армированный; бронированный; с проволочной оплёткой, в защитной оболочке
46.	proportional	пропорциональный, соразмерный
47.	underlying	основной; лежащий в основе; преимущественный
48.	intact	неповреждённый, целый
49.	prolific	продуктивный
50.	conductive	токопроводящий материал
51.	inversely	обратно, противоположно, обратно пропорционально
52.	to perform tests	проводить испытания
53.	to shut off	выключать, изолировать
54.	to persist	удерживаться, сохраняться, устоять
55.	to magnify	увеличивать, усиливать
56.	to capture	захватывать
57.	to induce	индуцировать, вызывать, вынуждать, наводить (заряд, ток)
58.	to run	зд. пропускать
59.	to irradiate	облучать

Logging refers to performing tests during or after the drilling process to allow geologists and drill operators to monitor the progress of the well drilling and to gain a clearer picture of subsurface formations. There are many different types of logging, in fact; over 100 different logging tests can be performed, but essentially they consist of a variety of tests that illuminate the true composition and characteristics of the different layers of rock that the well passes through. Logging is also essential during the drilling process. Monitoring logs can ensure that the correct drilling equipment is used and that drilling is not continued if unfavorable conditions develop.

Various types of tests include standard, electric, acoustic, radioactivity, density, magnetic, temperature, mechanical, induction, caliper, directional and nuclear logging, to name but a few. The most prolific and often performed tests include standard logging (mud logging, coring) and wireline logging (electric logging, radioactive logging and acoustic (sonic) logging).

Standard logging consists of examining and recording the physical aspects of a well. For example, the drill cuttings (rock that is displaced by the drilling of the well) are all examined and recorded, allowing geologists to physically examine the subsurface rock. Also, core samples are taken, which consists of lifting a sample of underground rock intact to the surface, allowing the various layers of rock, and their thickness, to be examined. These cuttings and cores are often examined using powerful microscopes, which can magnify the rock up to 2000 times. This allows the geologist to examine the porosity and fluid content of the subsurface rock, and to gain a better understanding of the earth in which the well is being drilled.

Electric logging consists of lowering a device used to measure the electric resistance of the rock layers in the 'down hole' portion of the well. This is done by running an electric current through the rock formation and measuring the resistance that it encounters along its way. This gives geologists an idea of the fluid content and characteristics. A newer version of electric logging, called induction electric logging, provides much the same types of readings but is more easily performed and provides data that is more easily interpreted.

Acoustic (sonic) logs use a sound generator and microphone to measure the velocity of sound in the formation from one end of the sonde to the other. For a given type of rock, acoustic velocity varies indirectly with porosity.

Radioactive logging includes gamma-ray logging, neutron logging and density logging. The gamma-ray logging is simply a measurement of naturally occurring gamma radiation from the walls of the borehole. The basic idea is that sandstones and limestones are largely non-radioactive. Shales however may have a high content of radioactive potassium isotopes. Thus the presence or absence of gamma rays in a section of borehole is an indication of the amount of shale or clay in the surrounding formation.

Neutron logs irradiate the borehole walls with neutrons. They tend to pass through most minerals, but to be captured by hydrogen atoms. When that happens, a hydrogen atom emits a gamma ray. The number of these is proportional to the number of hydrogen atoms present in the formation. In most rocks, hydrogen occurs only in oil or water in the pores.

D ensity logs use a gamma ray source to irradiate the sides of the borehole. Electrons in the material of the formation absorb some of the gamma rays and reemit them at a characteristic frequency. The number of reemitted gamma rays detected by the sonde is inversely proportional to the density of the formation. If one knows the density of the minerals in the solid part of the formation, it is a simple algebra problem to determine the amount of water or oil filled porosity.

Fig.1 An Example of Well Log Data

An example of the data obtained through various forms of logging is shown below. In this representation, the different columns indicate the results of different types of tests. The data is interpreted by an experienced geologist, geophysicist, or petroleum engineer, who is able to learn from what appear as 'squiggly' lines on the well data readout.

The drilling of an exploratory or developing well is the first contact that a geologist or petroleum engineer has with the actual contents of the subsurface geology. Logging, in its many forms, consists of using this opportunity to gain a fuller understanding of what actually lies beneath the surface. In addition to providing information specific to that particular well, vast archives of historical logs exist for geologists interested in the geologic features of a given, or similar, area.

A. Comprehension

Answer the questions:

1. What is logging?

2. What types of logging can you name?

3. What does standard logging consist of?

4. What data does electric logging provide?

5. What is the underlying principle of acoustic logging?

6. What is the basis of gamma-ray log functioning?

7. What is neutron logging? What is it used for?

8. What is the difference between gamma-ray logging and density logging?

9. What is a log?

B. Vocabulary practice

1. Give English equivalents for:

1) отслеживать продвижение бурения скважины; 2) различные виды каротажа; 3) использовать правильное буровое оборудование; 4) выходить за пределы; 5) акустический каротаж, электрический каротаж, радиоактивный (радиационный) каротаж; 6) изучать нижние горизонты; 7) брать образцы керна; 8) исследовать толщину различных слоев породы; 9) изучать с помощью мощного микроскопа; 10) погружать в ствол скважины измерительный прибор; 11) пропускать электрический ток сквозь породу; 12) использовать генератор звука и микрофон; 13) измерять скорость звука; 14) гамма излучение пласта; 15) изотопы калия, содержащиеся в сланцах; 16) наличие или отсутствие гамма-излучения в скважине; 17) облучать нейтронами прилегающие к стволу породы; 18) испускать гамма лучи; 19) бомбардировать породы скважины с помощью гамма излучения; 20) обратно пропорциональный плотности; 21) захват нейтронов; 22) определять пористость породы; 23) волнистые линии на каротажной диаграмме; 24) результаты различных типов исследований; 25) данные о скважине (характеристика скважины).

II. Give Russian equivalents for:

1) to perform tests during or after the drilling process; 2) to monitor the progress of the well drilling; 3) to gain a clearer picture of subsurface formations; 4) logging tests; 5) composition and characteristics of the different layers of rock; 6) unfavorable conditions; 7) the most prolific and often performed tests; 8) examining and recording the physical aspects of a well; 9) to magnify the rock up to 2000 times; 10) to measure the electric resistance of the rock layers; 11) the fluid content and characteristics; 12) to measure the velocity of sound in the formation; 13) to vary indirectly with porosity; 14) naturally occurring gamma radiation; 15) to be non-radioactive; 16) to have a high content of radioactive potassium isotopes; 17) the surrounding formation; 18) to emit a gamma ray; 19) to be proportional to the number of hydrogen atoms;20) to irradiate the sides of the borehole; 21) gamma rays detected by the sonde; 22) the data obtained through various forms of logging; 23) to be interpreted by an experienced geologist/geophysicist/ petroleum engineer; 24) vast archives of historical logs; 25) the well data readout.

III. Fill in the appropriate word(s) from the list below into the extracts and translate them into Russian:

a) microscope, fluorescence, to determine, examination, formation, mud log, staining, simplest, dissolves

In petroleum exploration and development, … evaluation is used … whether a potential oil or gas field is commercially viable. Tools to detect oil and gas have been evolving for over a century. The … and most direct tool is well cuttings … . Today, a geologist or mudlogger uses a … to determine the lithology of the formation being drilled and to estimate porosity and possible oil staining. A portable ultraviolet light chamber is used to examine the cuttings for … . Fluorescence can be an indication of crude oil …, or of the presence of fluorescent minerals. They can be differentiated by placing the cuttings in a solvent filled vessel. Crude oil … and then redeposits as a fluorescent ring when the solvent evaporates. The written strip chart recording of these examinations is called a sample log or… .

b) positive, strip chart, muds, electrode, electromagnetic, measurements, bottom, rubber, voltage, current, formation, logging, magnetic, sonde, induction, cable

Modern electric logs fall into several families of tools, with varying names, depending on the company providing the … services. Conceptually, they can be divided into two groups: resistivity logs and induction logs.

The first group includes tools that have electrodes on a long … covered sonde, 20' to 50' long. This is lowered to the … of the well on a steel … . As the sonde is pulled back up the well, … are made by producing an electric … on the positive and negative electrodes of the sonde. This voltage causes a current to flow away from the negative …, through the mud, out into the formation and back to the … electrode. Most tools use the amount of voltage needed to maintain a constant current as the measure of resistivity. This is presented as a line on a … . The strip chart or electric log, shows resistivity versus depth. These instruments work well in fresh water muds.

In salt …, which are very conductive, the current never gets into the … but stays in the borehole. In oil-based muds or in air drilling, the … cannot get to the formation at all. In these situations, the second group of electric logs, the … logs, are used. These logs use a strong, momentary, electric current within the … to "induce" a secondary current in the formation around the borehole. When the exciting current is shut off, the … field of the secondary current persists for a short time. This, in turn, induces a voltage in coils inside the sonde. Thus, there is never a physical path between the sonde and the formation. The connection is entirely ... .

c) variously, surface, difference, voltmeter, drilling, ions, battery

The SP log, known … as a "Spontaneous Potential", "Self Potential" or "Shale Potential" log is simply a … measurement of the voltage or electrical potential … between the mud in the hole at a particular depth and a copper stake driven into the … of the earth a short distance from the borehole. A salinity difference between the … mud and the formation water acts as a sort of natural … and will cause several voltage effects. This "battery" causes a movement of charged … between the hole and the formation directly depending on the permeability of the rock.

d) measurements, to be introduced, parameters, wireline, to occur, slow, to provide, surface, technique, to be recorded, wires, information, to be integrated.

In the 1980s, a new …, logging while drilling (LWD), … which provided similar … about the well. Instead of sensors being lowered into the well at the end of … cable, the sensors … into the drill string and the … are made while the well is being drilled. While wireline well logging … after the drill string is removed from the well, LWD measures geological … while the well is being drilled. However, because there are no … to the surface, data … downhole and retrieved when the drill string is removed from the hole. A small subset of the measured data can also be transmitted to the … in real time via pressure pulses in the well's mud fluid column. This mud telemetry method … a bandwidth of much less than 100 bits per second, although, as drilling through rock is a fairly … process, data compression techniques mean that this is an ample bandwidth for real-time delivery of information.

IV. Match the following terms with their definitions and give their Russian equivalents and make up your own sentences with them:

logging, acoustic logging, log, gamma ray logging, wireline logging , density logging, mud logging, neutron logging

1. A log that displays travel time of sound waves from the source to the formation and back to a receiver.

2. A measurement of the density of the formation, based on the reduction in gamma ray flux between a source and a detector.

3. A log of total natural radioactivity of the formation.

4. The display of one or more log measurements on a strip of paper or film (a hard copy) with depth in one axis.

5. The measurement versus depth or time, or both, of one or more physical quantities in or around a well.

6. Analysis of drilling mud and cuttings for the presence of hydrocarbons and lithology interpretation.

7. A log based on the ability of hydrogen to slow down and capture neutrons. Since hydrogen is found mainly in the pore fluids, the neutron log responds principally to porosity.

8. The type of logging when the logging tool is lowered into the wellbore on an armored wireline.

V. Explain the following terms using a specialized dictionary and glossary, give their Russian equivalents and make up your own sentences with them:

sonde, cable, core, drill cuttings

VI. Give English translation for:

1. Каротаж - это геофизические исследования при помощи специального оборудования, спускаемого в скважину для определения необходимых параметров работы.

2. Геофизические работы (каротаж) осуществляют практически на всех этапах строительства и эксплуатации скважины (при бурении, заканчивании, капитальном ремонте и эксплуатации скважины).

3. Каротаж даёт возможность уточнить по всей глубине скважи­ны её геологический разрез: литологический состав пород, толщину пластов, глубину зале­гания нефтяных, газовых и водяных горизонтов, а также по­ристость и проницаемость пород.

4. В настоящее время используется более 40 видов каротажа. Основные из них: электрические, радиоактивные, акустические, индукционные, геотермиче­ские методы.

5. Каротажной диаграммой называется любое ото­бражение состояния скважины в табличной или графической форме.

6. Во время бурения скважины каротаж применяется для анализа бурового раствора, измерения давления, исследования керна.

7. Плотностный каротаж применяется для определения плотности подземных пород.

8. Во время плотностного каротажа используется источник гама-излучения, при помощи которого облучаются стенки ствола скважины.

9. Акустический каротаж применяется для измерения скорости звука, проходящего в скважине через каждую из пород.

10. Акустические зонды используют генератор звука и микрофон для измерения скорости распространения звука в пласте.

11. Гамма-каротаж измеряет гамма-радиацию, излучаемую стенками ствола скважины.

12. Поровое пространство, заполненное водой, хорошо проводит ток.

13. Из трех наиболее распространенных осадочных пород радиоактивным может быть только сланец.

14. Нейтронный каротаж используется для измерения пористости пород в скважине.

15. Электрический каротаж применяется для измерения удельного сопротивления породы и пластовых флюидов.

C. Discussion

Topics:

1. Logging (formation evaluation).

2. Standard logging.

3. Types of wireline logging.

Chapter 4.

LEARNING OBJECTIVES:

Having worked through this chapter the student will be able to:

• describe the role of drilling in the exploration and development of a field.

• describe the steps involved in drilling a well, highlighting the reasons behind each step in the operation.

• describe the four major sub-systems of a drilling rig and the function of each system.

• describe the power system on a drilling rig.

• identify the names of each of the component parts of the hoisting system and circulating system .

• identify the names of each of the component parts of the rotary system and state its purpose.

• describe the procedure for running / pulling out of hole and making a connection.

• describe the basic components and the function of each component in the drillstring.

• describe the basic types of drillbit and the differences between a Diamond, Roller Cone and a PDC Bit.

• describe the influence of various operating parameters on the performance of a bit.

• list and describe the functions of drilling fluids and the properties which influence the capability of the fluid to achieve these functions.

• describe the most important properties of drilling fluids.

• describe the principle issues considered when programming a drilling fluid.

• list the main types of drilling fluid and the composition of these fluids.

• describe the operation of: a shale shaker; a desander and desilter and; a centrifuge.

• list and describe the principles of directional drilling techniques and their applications.

Unit 1. Onshore Drilling

Active vocabulary

	irrigation well	оросительный колодец; скважина для орошения
	wellbore	ствол скважины
	rotary drilling	роторное бурение
	chisel shaped instrument	резцовый инструмент
	drill cuttings	буровой шлам
	hand (held) drill	ручная дрель
	penetration method	метод проникновения/ проходки
	weighted fluid	утяжеленный флюид/ жидкость
	drilling mud	буровой раствор
	portability	транспортабельность, возможность переноса
	formation fluids	пластовые флюиды
	blowouts and gushers	выбросы и фонтаны
	rotary drilling rig	роторная буровая установка
	percussion drilling (cable tool drilling)	ударное бурение/ канатное бурение
	light/ medium/ heavy duty rig	легкая/ средняя/ тяжелая буровая установка
	shallow/ deep hole (well)	неглубокая/ глубокая скважина
	valuable (resources)	ценные ресурсы
	recorded (instance)	пример, учтенный письменно
	capped with (metal bits)	с наконечником в виде металлического долота
	increased (demand)	повышенный спрос
	desired (depth)	требуемая глубина
	blunt/ sharp (instrument)	тупой/ острый инструмент
	hard/ soft (rock)	твердая/ мягкая порода
	marine environment	водная среда
	to bail out of the well	откачать (нефть из скважины)
	to bear some resemblance to	быть похожим на что-либо
	to circulate through the wellbore	циркулировать по стволу скважины
	to carry sth to the surface	выносить что-либо на поверхность
	to wear out	изнашиваться
	to work on land/ offshore	работать на суше/ на шельфе
	to handle the weight of sth	справляться с весом чего-либо
	to disassemble/ to reassemble	демонтировать/ собрать на новом месте
	to prevent the entry of sth	перекрывать доступ
	to develop a technique/ design	разработать технологию/ дизайн
	to break through the rock	разрушать породу
	to drill into the Earth/ a well	пробурить вглубь земли/ скважину
	to uncover resources	обнаружить ресурсы
	to dig	копать
	to date back to	датироваться/ восходить ко времени
	to punch a hole	продолбить скважину
	as early as (1500)	уже (в 1500г)
	despite the historical significance	несмотря на историческую значимость
	beyond (maximum depth)	сверх (максимальной глубины)

Drilling into the Earth in the hopes of uncovering valuable resources is nothing new. In fact, the digging of water and irrigation wells dates back to the beginning of recorded history. The first recorded instance of the practice of 'drilling' holes in the ground came about around 600 B.C., when the Chinese developed a technique of repeatedly pounding bamboo shoots capped with metal bits into the ground. This crude technology was the first appearance of what is now known as 'percussion drilling'; a method of drilling that is still in use today. Much advancement has been made since these first bamboo drilling implements, with the realization of the value and increased demand for subsurface hydrocarbons.

There are two main types of onshore drilling: percussion, or 'cable tool' drilling and rotary drilling.

The basic concept for cable tool drilling consists of repeatedly dropping a heavy metal bit into the ground, eventually breaking through rock and punching a hole through to the desired depth. The bit, usually a blunt, chisel shaped instrument, can vary with the type of rock that is being drilled. Water is used in the well hole to combine with all of the drill cuttings, and is periodically bailed out of the well when this 'mud' interferes with the effectiveness of the drill bit. Despite the historical significance of cable tool drilling, modern drilling activity has shifted mainly towards rotary drilling methods.

R otary drilling uses a sharp, rotating drill bit to dig down through the Earth's crust. Much like a common hand held drill, the spinning of the drill bit allows for penetration of even the hardest rock. The idea of using a rotary drill bit is not new. In fact, archeological records show that as early as 3000 B.C., the Egyptians may have been using a similar technique. Leonardo Da Vinci, as early as 1500, developed a design for a rotary drilling mechanism that bears much resemblance to technology used today.

During the middle and late 20th century, rotary drilling became the preferred penetration method for oil and gas wells. Probably the greatest advantage of rotary drilling over cable tooling is that the wellbore is kept full of liquid during drilling. A weighted fluid (drilling mud) is circulated through the well bore to serve two important purposes. By its hydrostatic pressure, it prevents the entry of the formation fluids into the well, thereby preventing “blowouts” and gushers. In addition, the drilling mud carries the crushed rock to the surface, so that drilling is continuous until the bit wears out.

Rotary drilling techniques have enabled wells to be drilled to depths of more than 9,000 metres. Formations having fluid pressures greater than 1,400 kilograms per square centimetre (20,000 pounds per square inch) and temperatures greater than 250° C (480° F) have been successfully penetrated.

Many kinds of rotary drilling rigs are available, particularly offshore where the marine environment plays an important role in rig design. Two broad categories of rig are those that work on land and those that work offshore.

Land rigs look much alike, although details vary. A major difference is their size, and the size determines how deep the rig can drill. Well depths range from a few hundred or thousand metres to tens of thousands of metres. The depth of the formation that contains, or is believed to contain, oil and gas controls well depth. Classified by size, land rigs are light duty, medium duty, heavy duty, and very heavy duty. Table 1 arranges them according to this scheme and shows the depths to which they can drill.

Rig Size	Maximum Drilling Depth, (Metres)
Light duty	1000 – 1500
Medium duty	1200 – 3000
Heavy duty	3500 – 5000
Very heavy duty	5500 – 7500 +

A rig can drill holes shallower than its maximum rated depth. For example, a medium-duty rig could drill a 750-metre hole, although a light-duty rig could also drill it. On the other hand, a rig cannot drill too much beyond its maximum depth, because it cannot handle the heavier weight of the drilling equipment required for deeper holes.

Another feature land rigs share is portability. A rig can drill a hole at one site, be disassembled if required, moved to another site, and be reassembled to drill another hole. Indeed, land rigs are so mobile that one definition terms them “portable hole factories”. The definition sounds odd, but it is accurate.

A. Comprehension

Answer the questions:

1. How did Chinese make their first holes in the ground?

2. What are the two main types of onshore drilling?

3. How was cable tool drilling achieved in old days?

4. Who was the first to develop rotary drilling technique? When was that?

5. Describe the concept for rotary drilling.

6. What is the difference between rotary and cable tool drilling?

7. Why is rotary drilling method preferred today?

8. How can land rigs be classified?

9. What well parameters should be taken into consideration when you choose a rig type?

10) Comment on the definition ‘portable hole factories’.

B. Vocabulary practice

I. Give English equivalents for:

1) пробурить скважину на глубину 2,5 м; 2) установка канатного бурения; 3) применять для добычи пресной воды; 4) снабженный резцом; 5) опускать в скважину с помощью веревки; 6) измельчать горную породу; 7) вычерпывать воду вместе с буровым шламом из скважины; 8) метод роторного бурения; 9) вращение долота; 10) выносить на поверхность со дна скважины; 11) циркулировать по стволу скважины; 12) предотвращать попадание пластовых вод в скважину; 13) изнашивать буровое долото; 14) на необходимой глубине; 15) крошить породу путем падения и подъема; 16) создавать гидростатическое давление; 17) уменьшать возможность выброса и фонтанирования скважины; 18) пластовое давление превышающее 1,400 кг на см³; 19) водная среда; 20)определять глубину бурения; 21) пласт, содержащий нефть или газ; 22) пробурить сверх максимальной глубины; 23) разделять (иметь схожую) характеристику; 24) смонтировать на другом месте; 25) таким образом предотвращая.

II. Give Russian equivalents for:

1) drilling into the Earth; 2) digging of water and irrigation wells; 3) a medium duty rig; 4) to repeatedly pound bamboo shoots; 5) crude technology; 6) still in used today; 7) to make an advancement; 8) demand for subsurface hydrocarbons; 9) the basic concept for cable tool drilling; 10) to drill a well to the desired depth; 11) blunt chisel shaped instrument; 12) to vary with the type of rock; 13) to combine with the drill cuttings; 14) to interfere with the effectiveness of the drill bit; 15) to dig down through the Earth crust; 16) a common hand held drill; 17) to allow for the penetration of even the hardest rock; 18) to become the preferred penetration method; 19) to be kept full of liquid; 20) to prevent the entry of the formation fluids into the well; 21) to carry the crushed rock to the surface; 22) to wear the bit out; 23) classified by size; 24) to move to another site; 25) to drill beyond maximum depth.

III. Fill in the appropriate word(s) from the list below into the extracts and translate them into Russian:

a) oil well, suspended from, chipping away, bucket, cable-tool, depths, deep, to collect.

The first planned … was drilled in 1859 by Colonel Drake at Titusville, Pennsylvania USA. This well was less than 100 ft … and produced about 50 bbls/ day. The … drilling method was used to drill this first well. The term cable tool drilling is used to describe the technique in which a chisel is … the end of a wire cable and is made to impact repeatedly on the bottom of the hole, … at the formation. When the rock at the bottom of the hole has been disintegrated, water is poured down the hole and a long cylindrical … (bailer) is run down the hole … the chips of rock. Cable-tool drilling was used up until the 1930s to reach … of 7500 ft.

b) rigs, circulated, to surface, load, drilling, cleaning, cutting tool, produced.

In the 1890s the first rotary drilling … were introduced. Essentially rotary drilling is the technique whereby the rock … is suspended on the end of hollow pipe, so that fluid can be continuously … across the face of the drill bit … the drilling material from the face of the bit and carrying it … . This is a much more efficient process than the cable-tool technique. The cutting tool used in this type of … is not a chisel but a relatively complex tool (drill bit) which drills through the rock under the combined effect of axial … and rotation. The first major success for rotary drilling was at Spindletop, Texas in 1901 where oil was discovered at 1020 ft and … about 100,000 bbl/day.

c) hole, portable, weight and size, masts, be moved, total, wheel-mounted, limitations, planning and design.

A rotary drilling rig is a … factory that is built to make a … . The requirement of portability (being able to … from site to site) places a limitation on rig design, as to both … of each component. The … weight of the rig is a factor for overland moves, but the weight and bulk of each unit of assembled equipment is even more important, because of truck and highway … on gross weight. … rigs can be used for drilling to depths of 10,000 feet or more. These rigs have self-erecting, telescoping …; and the mast, drawworks, and engines are built on a trailer or self-propelled unit. Equipment such as mud pumps must be handled as packages; therefore, efficient … are necessary.

d) take-down, design, pulled out, hoisting, circulating fluid, slow, disassembly.

Rotary rig … should –

1. allow for rapid erection and … , and provide for packaging in as few pieces as practical;

2. not require special cranes for assembly (rig-up) or … (tear-down);

3. enable drill pipe to be run into the hole or … with minimum time wasted;

4. provide the maximum amount of available power for the … to the bit ( good hydraulics) when drilling.

If rigs did not require mobility and quick rig-up and tear-down capability, they could be designed to require less power for …, pumping, and other jobs. Hydraulic rigs have been built, but they are heavy, …, and troublesome to operate.

IV. Match the following terms with their definitions and give their Russian equivalents:

cuttings, offshore rig, drilling mud, cable-tool drilling, wellbore, formation, gusher.

1. A drilling method in which the hole is drilled by dropping a sharply pointed bit on bottom. The bit is attached to a cable, and the cable is repeatedly dropped as the hole is drilled.

2. An oil well that has come in with such great pressure that the oil jets out of the well like a geyser.

3. The fragments of rock dislodged by the bit and brought to the surface in the drilling fluid.

4. A bed or deposit composed throughout of substantially the same kind of rock.

5. A borehole; the hole drilled by the bit.

6. Any of various types of drilling structures designed for use in drilling wells in oceans, seas, bays, gulfs and so forth.

7. Fluid circulated down the drill pipe and up the annulus during drilling to remove cuttings, cool and lubricate the bit, and maintain desired pressure in the well.

V. Explain the following terms using a specialized dictionary and glossary, give their Russian equivalents and make up your own sentences with them:

portability, to drill, formation pressure, hydrostatic pressure, rig.

VI. Give English translation for:

1. Когда в Тайтусвилле (Пенсильвания) в 1859г была пробурена первая промышленная скважина, для этого использовалась установка канатного бурения. Такие установки применялись в течение сотен лет для добычи пресной воды.

2. Буровое долото представляло собой твердый стальной прут длиной около 1,3м, снабженный резцом, который опускали в скважину с помощью веревки или кабеля.

3. После того как скважина пробурена на глубину 1-2,5м, ее дно оказывается покрытым обломками горных пород. Тогда буровое долото поднимают и для удаления бурового шлама в скважину опускают желонку. Ее поднимают и опорожняют, а долото возвращают в скважину.

4. Скорость канатного бурения очень невелика – в среднем около 7,5м в день. Хороший результат – 20м. Оно не очень эффективно для управления поверхностным давлением, и в такой ситуации не редки выбросы газа.

5. В период 1895 – 1930 годов в различных уголках земли на смену канатному бурению пришел метод роторного бурения, главным преимуществом которого является заметное увеличение скорости (от нескольких метров до сотен метров в день).

6. В конце 80-х гг. прошлого века близ города Новый Орлеан (шт. Луизиана, США) было применено вращательное бурение на нефть с промывкой скважин глинистым раствором. В России подобный метод впервые применили близ г. Грозного в 1902г. и нашли нефть на глубине 345м.

7. При вращательном бурении порода разрушается вращающимся долотом, на которое действует осевая нагрузка. Крутящий момент передается на долото или с поверхности от вращателя (ротора) через колонну бурильных труб, или от забойного двигателя (турбобура, электробура, винтового двигателя), установленного непосредственно над долотом.

8. Буровая установка – это комплекс буровых машин, механизмов и оборудования, смонтированный на точке бурения и обеспечивающий с помощью бурового инструмента самостоятельное выполнение технологических операций по строительству скважин.

9. Если глубина скважины невелика (до 1000м), то буровую установку размещают на автоприцепе, это называется передвижной буровой установкой.

10. При более глубокой скважине установку доставляют на нескольких автомобилях в виде отдельных модулей, спроектированных так, чтобы их легко можно было перевозить и монтировать на месте с помощью крупных штырей, закрепляемых шплинтами.

11. Буровую установку выбирают по ее допустимой максимальной грузоподъемности, обуславливающей с некоторым запасом вес в воздухе наиболее тяжелых бурильной и обсадной колонны.

12. Чем глубже скважина, тем крупнее и мощнее должна быть буровая установка, задача которой – поддержка бурильной трубы на полу установки при извлечении трубы из скважины. Каждая вышка рассчитана на максимальную глубину.

13. Для принятой по грузоподъемности и условной глубине бурения буровой установки в зависимости от региональных условий, связанных со степенью обустройства (дорог, линий электропередач, водоснабжения и др.) и климатической зоной, выбирают тип привода, схему монтажа и транспортирования.

14. Сегодняшние нефтяные и газовые скважины представляют собой капитальные дорогостоящие сооружения, служащие много десятилетий.

15. Это достигается соединением продуктивного пласта с дневной поверхностью герметичным, прочным и долговечным каналом.

C. Discussion

Topics:

1. Different rig types to be used for the well.

2. Rig design considerations.

3. Innovations in rotary drilling techniques.

Unit 2. Rotary Drilling (Part 1: Prime Movers and Hoisting Equipment)

Active vocabulary

	rotary drilling	роторное/ вращательное бурение
	drill bit	буровое долото
	rig	буровая установка
	prime movers	первичные двигатели
	hoisting equipment	вышкомонтажное оборудование/ спуско-подъемное оборудование
	rotating equipment	вращательное оборудование
	circulating equipment	циркуляционное оборудование
	steam/ diesel/ gasoline engine	паровой/ дизельный/ бензиновый двигатель
	reciprocating turbine	возвратно-поступательная турбина
	power lines/ power source	линии электропередачи/ источник энергии
	control cabinet	шкаф управления/ электроавтоматики
	control gear	распределительный механизм
	drawworks	буровая лебедка
	mud pump	буровой насос
	drill pipe	бурильная труба
	mast/ derrick	буровая мачта/ деррик
	crow block (set of pulleys)	кронблок (полиспаст)
	travelling block	талевый блок
	drilling line	талевый канат/ струна оснастки талевого блока
	wire rope	проволочный канат/ трос
	supply reel	подающая катушка
	deadline anchor	механизм крепления неподвижного конца талевого каната
	catshaft	вал катушки
	cathead	шпилевая катушка (для затягивания инструментов и труб в буровую вышку, подъёма хомутов и элеваторов, свинчивания и развинчивания бурильных труб)
	clutch	муфта включения барабанного вала (буровой лебёдки)
	main brake/ auxiliary brake	основной/ дополнительный тормоз
	turning force	вращающая сила
	hook load	нагрузка на крюк
	complicated	сложный
	multiple (joints)	составной/ множественный
	encountered on	встречающийся где-то
	anticipated (loads)	ожидаемый
	to delve into rock	углубляться в породу
	to advance rapidly	продвигаться вперед быстрыми темпами
	to introduce constantly	постоянно внедрять
	to provide the power/ to be powered by	обеспечивать энергию/ приводиться в движение чем-либо
	to compose the majority of	составлять большинство
	to be in use	использоваться
	to generate electricity on site	производить электроэнергию на месте
	to drill in excess of	пробурить на глубину …
	to flow/go through cables	течь по проводам
	to raise/ lower sth	поднимать/ опускать что-либо
	to go into/ to come out from the well	опускать в/ поднимать из скважины
	to serve as a support	служить опорой
	to speed up the process	ускорять процесс
	to run from … to	зд. выпускаться от … до …
	to reeve (several times between … and …)	продевать канат (через блок)
	to wrap/ spool	наматывать (канат на барабан)
	to be mounted on	быть установленным/ смонтированным на
	to release the brake	отпускать тормоз
	due to wear and tear	вследствие износа
	a great deal	значительно
	in turn	в свою очередь
	by definition	по определению
	in the oilfield	в нефтегазовом деле

While the concept for rotary drilling - using a sharp, spinning drill bit to delve into rock - is quite simple, the actual mechanics of modern rigs are quite complicated. In addition, technology advances so rapidly that new innovations are being introduced constantly. The basic rotary drilling system consists of four groups of components. The prime movers, hoisting equipment, rotating equipment, and circulating equipment all combine to make rotary drilling possible.

T he prime movers in a rotary drilling rig are those pieces of equipment that provide the power to the entire rig. Up until World War II, rotary rigs were traditionally powered by steam engines. Diesel engines became the norm after the war. Recently, while diesel engines still compose the majority of power sources on rotary rigs, other types of engines are also in use. Natural gas or gasoline engines are commonly used, as are natural gas or gasoline powered reciprocating turbines, which generate electricity on site. The resulting electricity is used to power the rig itself. Other rotary rigs may use electricity directly from power lines. Most rotary rigs these days require 1,000 to 3,000 horsepower, while shallow drilling rigs may require as little as 500 horsepower. Rotary rigs designed to drill in excess of 20,000 feet below surface may require much more than 3,000 horsepower.

On diesel-electric rigs, powerful engines drive large electric generators. They, in turn, produce electricity that flows through cables to electric switch and control equipment enclosed in a control cabinet. From the control gear, electricity goes through more cables to electric motors. The manufacturer attaches the motors directly to the equipment to be driven – for example, the drawworks or mud pumps.

The hoisting equipment on a rotary rig consists of the tools used to raise and lower whatever other equipment may go into or come out of the well. For instance, in rotary drilling, the wells are dug with long strings of pipe (drill pipe) extending from the surface down to the drill bit. If a drill bit needs to be changed, either due to wear and tear or a change in the subsurface rock, the whole string of pipe must be raised to the surface and lowered back into the well after the bit replacement.

A typical hoisting system is made up of the drawworks (or hoist), a mast or derrick, the crown block, the traveling block, and the wire rope drilling line. The most visible part of the hoisting equipment is the derrick, the tall tower-like structure that extends vertically from the well hole. This structure serves as a support for the drilling lines and drawworks. The height of a rigs derrick can often be a clue as to the depth of the well being dug. Drill pipe traditionally comes in 30ft sections, which are joined together as the well is dug deeper and deeper. This means that even if a well is 20,000 feet deep, the drill string must still be taken out in 30 foot sections. However, if the derrick is tall enough, multiple joints of drill pipe may be removed at once, speeding up the process a great deal.

Manufacturers make drilling line from very strong wire rope. Drilling line runs from 22 to 51 millimetres in diameter and is similar to common fiber rope, but is made out of steel wires. It is designed especially for the heavy loads encountered on the rig. The line comes off a large reel – a supply reel. From the supply reel, it goes to a strong clamp called the “deadline anchor”. From it, the drilling line runs up to the top of the mast or derrick to a set of large pulleys which is called the crown block. In the oilfield, the pulleys are termed “sheaves”. The drilling line is reeved several times between the crown block and another large set of sheaves called the traveling block to get the effect of several lines. The heavier the anticipated loads on the traveling block, the more times the line is reeved between the crown and travelling block

The drawworks is a big, heavy piece of machinery. It consists of a revolving drum around which crew members wrap or spool wire rope drilling line. It also has a catshaft on which the catheads are mounted. Further, it has clutches and chain-and-gear drives so that the driller can change its speed and direction. A main brake provides the driller a way of slowing and stopping the drum. An auxiliary electric brake assists the main brake by absorbing the momentum created by the load being raised or lowered. Big electromagnets inside the auxiliary brake oppose the turning forces on the drum and help the main brake stop the load.

The brake is the main lever at the driller’s console. The man on the brake is by definition the driller. Actual drilling is accomplished by gently releasing the mechanical brake a little at a time, allowing the drilling line to unwind slowly, and so lowering the drill pipe through the rotary table in a way that a more or less constant hook load (and with it a constant weight on the bit) is achieved.

While drilling, the noise of the releasing mechanical brake is heard all over the rig. An experienced rig hand listening to the brake can almost feel the drilling progress made. The changing tune of the brake is very often the first indication of a drilling break, much before the increased rate of penetration is evident on strip charts or any other recording device. At this point the driller can be called and asked what is going on.

A. Comprehension

Answer the questions:

1. What does the term ‘rotary drilling’ mean?

2. What components groups does a modern drilling rig have?

3. What is the purpose of prime movers in a rig?

4. Name the main elements of a typical hoisting system and their functions.

5. Why do multiple joints of drill pipe speed up the tripping process?

6. Which way does the drilling line run from the supply reel?

7. How can the driller operate the drawworks using the two brake types?

8. Why do the engineers need to reeve the drilling line several times between the crown and travelling block?

9. Is it important to listen to the tune of the brake? Why/Why not?

10) What types of power source can be used in a rig?

B. Vocabulary practice

I. Give English equivalents for:

1) роторная буровая установка; 2) вращать стальную трубу с буровым долотом на конце; 3) состоять из четырех основных систем; 4) осуществлять энергоснабжение при помощи первичных двигателей; 5) спуско-подъемная система; 6) напрямую от линий электропередачи; 7) потреблять от 1000 до 3000 л.с.; 8) течь по проводам; 9) приводить в действие турбину; 10) применяться для поднятия, спуска, и замены скважинного оборудования; 11) стальная конструкция, установленная над скважиной; 12) талевый блок и буровая лебедка; 13) талевый канат из плетеной стали; 14) наматываться на буровую лебедку; 14) проходить от буровой лебедки через колесо кронблока; 15) управлять лебедкой с помощью тормоза; 16) присоединять шпилевые катушки к валу; 17) закрепленный наверху деррика; 18) подниматься одновременно; 19) наматывать талевый канат на лебедку; 20) главная рукоятка бурильщика; 21) механизм крепления неподвижного конца талевого каната; 22) крепиться на полу буровой установки; 23) первое свидетельство поломки; 24) поддерживать постоянную нагрузку на крюке.

II. Give Russian equivalents for:

1) the concept for rotary drilling; 2) spinning drill bit; 3) to delve into rock; 4) to provide the power to the entire rig; 5) to compose the majority of power sources; 6) to generate electricity on site; 7) directly from power lines; 8) to drill in excess of …; 9) to flow through cables; 10) to raise and lower other equipment; 11) drill pipe extending from the surface down to the drill bit; 12) due to wear and tear; 13) to extend vertically from the well hole; 14) support for the drilling lines and drawworks; 15) multiple joints of drill pipe; 16) to speed up the process; 17) heavy loads encountered on the rig; 18) set of large pulleys called the crown block; 19) a big, heavy piece of machinery; 20) clutches and chain-and-gear drives; 21) to oppose the turning forces on the drum; 22) the main lever at the driller’s console; 23) an experienced rig hand; 24) in the oilfield; 25) to gently release the mechanical brake.

III. Fill in the appropriate word(s) from the list below into the extracts and translate them into Russian:

a) to raise, drawworks, derrick, assembly, the bit, drill stem.

The hoisting system is used … and lower the …, and also to support and lower pipe that is used for casing and tubing. A mast or … supports the hook by means of the travelling block, wire rope, crown block, and drawworks. The … is powerd by two or three engines (called prime movers) to raise or lower the drill stem so that … can drill. The drill stem is the whole … from the swivel to the bit, including the kelly, drill pipe, drill collars, and bit sub.

b) drilling site, in one lift, deep wells, manufactured, dismantled, steel structures, mast.

Standard drilling rig derricks are tall … with four supporting legs standing on a square base. A derrick is assembled piece by piece at the … . A drilling mast, which is partially assembled when it is …, usually has a smaller floor area. It is raised from a horizontal to a vertical position …, as a beam supported at one end can be lifted. The standard derrick has become rare today except for extremely … and offshore drilling. The … has almost completely replaced the conventional derrick for drilling on land because it can be quickly … and erected on another location by the regular rig crew.

c) diesel, current, total rig power, prime movers, liquefied petroleum gas, electricity, turn, large rigs.

Most drilling rigs are now powered by internal-combustion engines and … .

… and most wheel-mounted assembles are generally powered by … engines. Diesel-electric rigs are fitted with diesel engines. These engines … electric generators that supply AC or DC … to electric motors for the different machines.

Most … are diesel engines, although some rigs are driven by engines that use natural gas or … in the form of propane or butane. Drilling rig engines range from 250 to 2,000 horsepower (hp) each; … may be 500to 5,000 hp.

d) lift and lower, loaded, brake system, the travelling block, brake bands, are equipped, reels in, a hoist, full stop.

A drawworks on a rig is known in other industries as … . The main purpose of the drawworks is to … pipe in and out the hole. The hoisting drum either … wire rope to pull the pipe from the hole or lets out wire rope to lower … and attached drill stem, casing, or tubing.

The drawworks … makes it possible for the driller to control a load of several hundred tons of the drill pipe or casing. Most rigs … with two brake systems for the drawworks hoisting drum: one that is mechanical and one that is hydraulic or electric. The mechanical system consists of compounded levers to tighten … to bring the drum to … . The other brake can control the speed of descend of a … travelling block, although it is not capable of stopping the drum completely.

IV. Match the following terms with their definitions and give their Russian equivalents:

drill bit, drilling line, deadline anchor, brake, crown block, cathead, drawworks

1. The hoisting mechanism on a drilling rig. It is essentially a large winch that spools or takes in the drilling line and thus raises or lowers the drill stem and the bit.

2. The cutting or boring element used for drilling.

3. An assembly of sheaves mounted on beams at the top of the derrick or mast and over which the drilling line is reeved.

4. A wire rope, used to support the drilling tools. Also called the rotary line

5. A spool-shaped attachment on the end of the catshaft, around which rope for hoisting and moving heavy on or near the rig floor is wound.

6. A device to which the deadline is attached, securely fastened to the mast or derrick substructure.

7. A device, for arresting the motion of a mechanism, usually by means of friction.

V. Explain the following terms using a specialized dictionary and glossary, give their Russian equivalents and make up your own sentences with them:

rotary drilling, drilling rig, prime movers, hoisting equipment, driller.

VI. Give English translation for:

1. В настоящее время бурение практически всех скважин происходит с помощью роторной буровой установки.

2. Роторная буровая установка вращает стальную трубу с буровым долотом на конце, она пробуривает отверстие, называемое стволом скважины.

3. Роторная установка состоит из четырех основных систем – энергоснабжения, спуска и подъема, вращения и циркуляции.

4. На буровой установке могут применяться один, два, или четыре первичных двигателя, в зависимости от размера установки и глубины бурения. Двигатели классифицируются по мощности (выражаемой в лошадиных силах) и потреблению топлива.

5. Спуско-подъемная система применяется для поднятия, спуска, и замены скважинного оборудования.

6. Деррик или буровая мачта, - это стальная конструкция, установленная прямо над скважиной. Наверху конструкции находится кронблок, задача которого – удерживать бурильную трубу в вертикальном положении при извлечении из скважины.

7. Талевый канат сделан из плетеной стали, он имеет около 3 см в диаметре. Один конец каната крепится неподвижно при помощи специально механизма, а другой наматывается на буровую лебедку.

8. Лебедка – это расположенная на полу буровой установки катушка, вращающаяся на горизонтальном валу в стальной раме.

9. Бурильщик управляет лебедкой с помощью тормоза – рукоятки в полу буровой установки. Небольшие шпилевые катушки присоединяют к катушечному валу, проходящему через лебедку.

10. На буровой установке имеется два блока, представляющие собой группы колес на горизонтальных осях и заключенные в стальные рамы. Талевый канат проходит от буровой лебедки через колесо кронблока. Закрепленное наверху деррика, затем опускается вниз к талевому блоку, подвешенному внутри деррика.

11. Ниже талевого блока находится крюк для транспортировки оборудования. По мере того как талевый канат перемещается в одном или другом направлении, талевый блок также движется вверх и вниз, поднимая оборудование из скважины или опуская в скважину.

12. При подъеме крюка мощность подводиться к лебедке от двигателей, а при спуске, наоборот, тормозные устройства должны преобразовывать всю освободившуюся энергию в теплоту.

13. Основные преимущества электрического привода переменного тока – его относительная простота в монтаже и эксплуатации, высокая надежность, экономичность. В то же время буровые установки с с этим типом привода можно использовать лишь в электрифицированных районах.

14. Дизель-электрический привод состоит из приводного электродвигателя, связанного с исполнительным механизмом; генератора, питающего этот электродвигатель, дизеля, приводящего во вращение генератор.

15. Деррики и буровые устанавливают на четырех опорах из конструкционной стали. На передней стороне деррика имеется вход в виде перевернутой буквы V, что позволяет вносить на пол буровой установки трубы и обсадную колонну, которую поднимают по подъемным мосткам.

C. Discussion

Topics:

1. Prime movers for remote location drilling rigs.

2. The components parts of the hoisting system and their function.

3. Tripping: round trip operations.

Unit 3. Rotary Drilling (Part 2: Rotating Equipment)

Active vocabulary

	rotary drilling rig	установка для роторного бурения
	rotary table	стол бурового ротора
	kelly	ведущая бурильная труба
	top-drive system	система с верхним приводом
	drilling contractor	буровой подрядчик
	down hole motor	забойный двигатель
	turn table	стол бурового ротора
	master bushing	основной вкладыш
	kelly drive bushing	вкладыш под ведущую бурильную трубу
	swivel	вертлюг
	fitting	фитинг (соединительная деталь)
	cross section	поперечное сечение
	heavy-duty bail	мощная дужка (элеватора для соединения с крюком_
	joint of pipe	однотрубная свеча
	box	замковая муфта (конец трубы с резьбой внутри)
	pin	ниппель (конец трубы с резьбой снаружи)
	slant/ horizontal drilling	наклонное/ горизонтальное бурение
	drill collar	утяжеленная бурильная труба
	drill string	буровая колонна
	inside/ outside threads	внутренняя/ наружная резьба
	core	керн
	logging	каротаж
	steel tooth rotary bit	долото со стальными зубцами
	insert bit	шарошечное буровое долото, армированное твердым сплавом
	tungsten carbide inserts	вставные карбидвольфрамовые зубья
	polycrystalline diamond compact bit	долото с поликристаллическими алмазными вставками
	diamond bit	алмазное долото
	button bit	штыревое долото
	tricone roller bit	трехшарошечное долото
	tapered bit	съемная буровая коронка с конусным соединением
	fishtail bit	долото лопастного типа «рыбий хвост»
	mill bit	долото с фрезерованными зубьями
	round/ square/ hexagonal (in shape)	круглый/ квадратный/ шестиугольный
	strong/ flexible	крепкий/ гибкий
	experienced/ encountered (conditions)	встречаемый
	suited/ suitable for	подходящий для чего-либо
	to employ widely	использовать повсеместно
	to produce a (turning, etc) motion	производить (вращательное) движение
	to transfer to	передавать чему-либо
	to run pipe into	опускать трубу в …
	to slide into sth	скользить внутри чего-либо
	to move up/ down through	двигаться вверх/ вниз по …
	to interface sth with sth	соединять что-то с чем-то
	to suspend	поддерживать
	to interlock together	сцеплять/ соединять
	to stab (insert)	заводить конец верхней трубы в муфту нижней (при свинчивании)
	to alter depending on	изменять в зависимости от …
	to be located at	быть расположенным на …
	to break up and dislodge	ломать и удалять
	to attach to sth	прикреплять к чему-либо
	to dull overly	чрезмерно притупиться
	to combine features of	сочетать черты чего-либо
	to mill away sth	размельчать
	thus	таким образом
	consequently	соответственно

The rotating equipment on a rotary drilling rig consists of the components that actually serve to rotate the drill bit, which in turn digs the hole deeper and deeper into the ground. Generally, rigs can rotate the bit in one of the three ways. The traditional way, the method that still dominates drilling, especially on land sites, uses a rotary table and kelly. A second way uses a top-drive system, which drilling contractors began to employ widely in the 1980s. A third way uses a d ownhole motor, which contractors use in special cases. A rotary-table system consists of five main parts: 1) a rotary table with a turntable, 2) a master bushing, 3) a kelly drive bushing, 4) a kelly, and 5) a swivel.

The turntable is round in shape and produces a turning motion that machinery transfers to the pipe and the bit. A master bushing is a fitting that goes inside the turntable. It has an opening through which crew members run pipe into the wellbore. A kelly drive bushing transfers the master bushing’s rotation to a special length of pipe called the “kelly”. Kellys are square or hexagonal in cross section, instead of round, because the flat sides enable the kelly to be rotated. The kelly slides easily into the drive-bushing opening. It is therefore free to move up or down through the bushing opening, even as it rotates, which allows the kelly to follow the bit down as it drills deeper. In general, a hexagonal kelly is stronger than a square one. Consequently, contractors tend to use hexagonal kellys on large rigs to drill deep wells because of their extra strength. Small rigs often use square kellys because they are less expensive. The swivel interfaces the rotary system with the hoisting system. A heavy-duty bail fits into a big hook on the bottom of the traveling block. The hook suspends the swivel and the attached drill string.

The drill pipe consists of 30ft sections of heavy steel pipe. Drilling people call each section a “joint of pipe”. The pipes are threaded so that they can interlock together. One end has inside threads and is called the “box”; the other has outside threads and is called the “pin”. When crew members make up drill pipe, they insert, or stab, the pin end in the box and tighten the connection. The drill pipe is a strong pipe, but can be quite flexible when used in slant or horizontal drilling applications. Below the drill pipe are drill collars, which are heavier, thicker, and stronger than normal drill pipe. The drill collars help to add weight to the drill string, right above the bit, to ensure there is enough downward pressure to allow the bit to drill through hard rock. The number and nature of the drill collars on any particular rotary rig can be altered depending on the down hole conditions experienced while drilling.

The drill bit is located at the bottom end of the drill string, and is responsible for actually making contact with the subsurface layers, and drilling through them by breaking up and dislodging rock, sediment, and anything else that may be encountered while drilling. There are dozens of different drill bit types, each designed for different subsurface drilling conditions. It can be a long process to change bits, due to the fact that the whole drill string must be removed; but using the correct drill bit can save a great deal of time during drilling. Drill bits are chosen given the expected underground formations, the type of drilling used, whether or not directional drilling is needed, the expected temperatures underneath the Earth, and whether or not cores (for logging purposes) are required. There are four main types of drill bits, each suited for particular conditions.

• Steel Tooth Rotary Bits are the most basic type of drill bit used today.

• Insert Bits are steel tooth bits with tungsten carbide inserts.

• Polycrystalline Diamond Compact Bits have polycrystalline diamond inserts attached to the carbide inserts found in Insert Bits.

• Diamond Bits have industrial diamonds implanted in them, to drill through extremely hard rock formations. Diamond bits are forty to fifty times harder than traditional steel bits, and can thus be used to drill through extremely hard rock without dulling overly quickly.

In addition to these main types of drill bits, hybrid bits, combining the features of various types of bits, can be used. If core samples are required for logging purposes, core bits are designed to drill and obtain these samples. There are a great number of different designs for drill bits, including tricone roller bits, button bits, tapered bits, fishtail bits, and mill bits. Each of these bits has specifically designed drilling traits. The fishtail bit, for instance, is designed to enlarge the drill hole above the drill bit, and the mill bit is designed to mill away metal scraps or objects found in the well. The drill bit, in addition to being very useful, is also very expensive. It is thus up to the drilling engineer to ensure that the correct bit is used at the correct time, to allow for maximum drilling efficiency, with minimum wear and tear on the valuable bit.

A. Comprehension

Answer the questions:

1. What does rotating equipment include?

2. What is the preferred drilling method nowadays? Name the two others.

3. Explain the actual mechanics of a rotary-table system.

4. What is kelly? Compare the two types of kellys.

5. How do sections of the drill pipe usually joined?

6. What is the purpose of drill collars?

7. Why are there so many different types of drill bits?

8. Is it important to use a correct drill bit Why?

9. What parameters should be taken into consideration in choosing a certain bit type?

10) Name some of the bit types and explain their function.

B. Vocabulary practice

I. Give English equivalents for:

1) вращающаяся бурильная труба с долотом; 2) быть подвешенным на крюке; 3) поддерживать массу всей трубы; 4) мощна четырех- или шестигранная труба, называемая ведущей бурильной трубой; 5) буровой ротор, расположенный на полу буровой установки; 6) проходить сквозь вкладыш под ведущую бур. трубу; 7) перемещаться вверх и вниз; 8) штуцер с наружной или внутренней резьбой; 9) свинчивать трубы; 10) секция трубы, называемая звеном; 11) утяжеленная бурильная труба; 12) шарошечное долото, с тремя вращающимися шарошками; 13) предназначаться для измельчения породы в забое скважины; 14) сотни разновидностей долот; 15) долото с фрезерованными зубьями; 16) долото с поликристаллическими алмазными вставками; 17) поднять или опустить колонну; 18) использоваться при бурении твердых пород; 19) сэкономить время; 20) предполагаемые подземные породы; 21) заменить долото в ходе спускоподъемной операции; 22) подходящий для определенных условий; 23) без быстрого износа; 24) получать керн для каротажных исследований; 25) для вычищения бурового шлама.

II. Give Russian equivalents for:

1) to rotate the drill bit; 2) to dig the hole into the ground; 3) on land sites; 4) drilling contractors; 5) depending on the down hole conditions; 6) rotary table with a turntable; 7) to make up a drill pipe; 8) to produce a turning motion; 9) to run pipe into the wellbore; 10) square in cross section; 11) to slide easily into the drive bushing opening; 12) to follow the bit down; 13) to interface sth with sth; 14) a heavy-duty bail; 15) to suspend the swivel; 16) to be threaded; 17) to interlock together; 18) inside and outside threads; 19) to break and dislodge the rock; 20) to remove the whole drill string; 21) the expected underground formations; 22) to replace the bit due to wear; 23) bits with tungsten carbide inserts; 24) to have industrial diamonds implanted in sth; 25) tricone roller bits and fishtail bits.

III. Fill in the appropriate word(s) from the list below into the extracts and translate them into Russian:

a) top drive, turns, kelly, drive bushing, a reduction, bit, drill pipe, mud, tripping, available, offshore, slips

The drive mechanism turning the … can be one of the two: rotary table drive or … . The top drive is relatively new concept and installed usually only on high-tech … rigs although top drive mechanisms are … also for smaller land rigs. The main advantage of a top drive is … in rig time when making connections and when … . A further advantage is the ability to keep on pumping … while pulling the pipe upwards, a practice also known as back-reaming.

The rotary is the machine that … the drill stem and the … in order to make a hole. A rotary table is fitted with a … (master bushing). The three-, four-, six-, or eight-sided … fits through the bushing and is thus turned by the rotary. The rotary serves two main functions: (1) to rotate the drill stem; and (2) to hold friction-grip devices called … to support the drill stem or casing.

b) swivel, drill stem, pumping, up and down, by the rotary, suspended, travelling block, to fit

The kelly is the top member of the … (string). It is about 40 feet long and may be either triangular-, square-, hexagon-, or octagon-shaped … its drive bushing. The kelly can move freely … through the drive bushing while it is being turned … . At its top, the kelly is connected with the …, which allows the kelly and the drill pipe to rotate below the (stationary) hook of the …, from which the whole drill string is … . A flexible hose, the kelly hose, connects the mud … system to the kelly and the drill string.

c) drill pipe, in lengths, upsets, are pulled, depth control, is measured, diameter, cross-overs, a stand

The drill string is the entire arrangement of …, heavy weight drill pipe, stabilizers, and … down to the drill bit. The drill pipe is gauged by the nominal outside …, the most common in use being 5”. Drill pipe comes … of about 31 feet. The exact length of every drill pipe … before this particular pipe is used in the string. The total of drill pipe lengths, the pipe tally is the first and the most correct means of … . Three drill pipes together, as they … for trips and put aside in the derrick are called … . The drill pipe has … at each end to give additional strength at the joint ends and to allow the pipe to be lifted when tripping.

d) tricone, soft, replaced, friction, jets, cones, bearings, endurance, the teeth, sophisticated

… bits are the most common type of bit in use today. Nearly all tricone bits are fitted with with … . Tricone bits come in different designs to drill …, medium and hard formations. The longer … of the bit – the softer the formation need to be – and vice versa. The teeth can be made of the same material as the … (milled teeth) or made of hard (e.g. tungsten carbide) inserts, hence insert bits. Tricone bits come with a variety of … on the cones. The most simple type is fitted with … bearings. More … designs have sealed bearings or journal bearings. The main difference – apart from the cost – is the … of the bits. Journal bearing bits can stay longer on bottom, rotate longer until they need to be … by a new bit.

IV. Match the following terms with their definitions and give their Russian equivalents:

master bushing, downhole motor, wellbore, drill collar, drill string, swivel, kelly

1. The heavy steel tubular device, four- or six-sided, suspended from the swivel through the rotary table and connected to the top joint of drill pipe to turn the drill stem as the rotary table turns.

2. A device that fits into the rotary table to accommodate the slips and drive the kelly bushing so that the rotating motion of the rotary table can be transmitted to the kelly.

3. A rotary tool that is hung from the rotary hook and the travelling block to suspend the drill stem and to permit it to rotate freely.

4. A heavy, thick-walled tube, usually steel, placed between the drill pipe and the bit in the drill stem.

5. A drilling tool made up in the drill string directly above the bit. It causes the bit to turn while the drill string remains fixed.

6. A borehole, the hole drilled by the bit.

7. The column of drill pipe with attached tool joints that transmits fluid and rotational power from the kelly to the drill collars and the bit.

V. Explain the following terms using a specialized dictionary and glossary, give their Russian equivalents and make up your own sentences with them:

roller cone bit, milled tooth bit, insert bit, diamond bit, polycrystalline diamond compact bit.

VI. Give English translation for:

1. Система вращения предназначена для процесса бурения скважины. Вращающаяся бурильная труба вместе с удлинителями, переходниками и долотом называется буровой колонной.

2. Прямо под талевым блоком на крюке подвешен вертлюг. Он позволяет буровой колонне вращаться с помощью подшипников, при этом массу всей трубы поддерживает деррик.

3. Под вертлюгом находится очень мощная четырех- или шестигранная труба из высококачественной молибденовой стали длиной 12 – 16,5м, называемая ведущей бурильной трубой.

4. Буровой ротор представляет собой подвижный круг, расположенный на полу буровой установки; его поворот по часовой стрелке производиться с помощью первичных двигателей.

5. Ведущая бурильная труба проходит сквозь приспособление, называемое вкладышем под ведущую бурильную трубу, которое, в свою очередь, проходит через основной вкладыш.

6. Ниже ведущей бурильной трубы располагается обычная бурильная труба, изготовленная из термообработанной легированной стали, длиной 5,5 – 14м.

7. Внешний диаметр трубы изменяется от 7 -14см, на ее конце имеется ниппель. Отрезок большего диаметра на одном из концов трубы представляет собой бурильный замок, который навинчен и приварен к бурильной трубе и используется в качестве муфты.

8. После того как скважина пробурена на глубину 10м, для удлинения трубы необходимо присоединить новое звено – этот процесс называется наращиванием трубы.

9. Часть буровой колонны ниже бурильной трубы называется забойной компоновкой – это собранные воедино долото, переводники, утяжеленные трубы, центраторы и бурильные трубы в количестве и ассортименте, необходимом для обеспечения проводки скважины.

10. Наиболее распространенным типом бурового долота является трехшарошечное. Его корпус состоит из трех приваренных друг к другу лап, изготовленных из стали. Каждая лапа оснащена соплом и каналом для прохождения бурового раствора.

11. При повороте долота, закрепленного в нижней части буровой колонны, вращаются и шарошки. Зубцы шарошек предназначены для отслаивания или измельчения породы в забое скважины.

12. Существуют сотни разновидностей трехшарошечных долот. Они подразделяются на долота с фрезерованными зубьями и штыревые.

13. Долото с фрезерованными зубьями применяют для относительно податливых пород (в этом случае зубья длинные и редкие) и пород средней твердости (зубья короткие и частые).

14. В твердых конусах штыревого долота просверлены отверстия, в которые вставлены штыри из карбида вольфрама, разрушающие породу. Такое долото применяется для относительно твердых пород.

15. Износ трехшарошечного долота происходит за 8 -200ч вращения, в среднем за 24 -48ч. То, что долото окончательно изношено, можно определить по изменению шума, создаваемого буровой колонной на полу буровой установки, а также по снизившейся скорости углубления.

C. Discussion

Topics:

1. Bit rotation: how is it achieved?

2. Basic components and the function of each component in the drill string.

3. Pros and cons of the top-drive system.

Unit 4. Rotary Drilling (Part 3: Circulating System)

Active vocabulary

	circulating system	система циркуляции
	drilling fluid (mud)	буровой раствор
	weighting materials	утяжелитель для бурового раствора
	air drilling	бурение с очисткой забоя воздухом
	drill cuttings	буровой шлам
	blowout	внезапный выброс; фонтан (из скважины во время бурения), фонтанирование (скважины)
	kick	резкое повышение давления, выброс (в стволе скважины)
	formation fluids	пластовый флюид
	wellbore	ствол скважины
	cake	глинистая корка на стенках скважины
	casing	обсадные трубы/ крепление обсадными трубами
	mud pump	буровой насос
	discharge line	нагнетательный трубопровод насоса
	standpipe	буровой стояк/ вертикальная труба (соединяющая буровой насос с вертлюгом)
	rotary hose	нагнетательный шланг, соединяющий стояк с вертлюгом
	annulus	затрубное пространство ( между бурильной трубой и стенками скважины)
	return line	обратная линия
	shale shaker	вибрационное сито (для очистки бурового раствора от шлама)
	desilter	ситогидроциклонный илоотделитель
	dasander	пескоотделитель
	mud tanks	резервуар для бурового раствора
	suction line	всасывающий трубопровод (бурового насоса)
	drill stem	бурильная штанга/ колонна
	reserve pit	отстойник (для хранения бурового раствора)
	receptacle	приемный резервуар
	degasser	устройство для дегазирования бурового раствора, дегазатор
	gas-cut mud	газированный буровой раствор
	blowout preventer	противовыбросовый превентор
	upward pressure	давление на жидкость снизу вверх (протоводавление)
	custom designed	созданный по индивидуальным требованиям
	environmentally sensitive	экологически уязвимый
	auxiliary	дополнительный
	fine (particles)	мелкие (частицы)
	commercially viable	коммерчески выгодный
	productive (well)	эксплуатационный
	to perform a function	выполнять/осуществлять функцию
	to cut down on sth	снижать что-либо
	to accomplish a task	выполнить задачу
	to circulate through sth	циркулировать в чем-либо
	to carry sth away	выносить/ уносить что-либо
	to coat with sth	покрывать чем-либо
	to seal	изолировать
	to flow out of/ into	вытекать/ втекать
	to screen out	просеивать
	to dump sth into	выгружать/ сваливать что-либо куда-либо
	to dispose of sth	избавляться/ утилизировать
	to recycle (the mud downhole)	повторно использовать (раствор в скважине)
	to make up for	компенсировать
	to contaminate	загрязнять
	to lead to sth	приводить к чему-либо
	to seal off	герметически закрывать
	to relieve the pressure	ослабить давление
	properly	должным образом
	temporarily	временно
	throughout sth	во время чего-то

The circulating system consists of drilling fluid, which is circulated down through the well hole throughout the drilling process, performing a number of functions, and circulating equipment.

Typically, liquid drilling fluids are used. The most common liquid drilling fluid, known as ‘mud’, may contain clay, chemicals, weighting materials, water, oil, or gases. ‘Air drilling’ is the practice of using gasses as the drilling fluid, rather than a liquid. Gases used include natural gas, air, or engine exhaust. Air drilling can significantly cut down on drilling time, as well as drilling fluid costs. The drilling fluid, much like the bit, is custom designed and chosen depending on what type of subsurface conditions are expected or experienced.

The drilling fluid chosen must have a number of properties to allow it to accomplish its tasks. It must be light and thin enough, on the one hand, to circulate through the drill bit, and heavy enough to carry drill cuttings away from the bit and back to the surface, on the other hand; as well as control upward pressure that may be experienced in the well to prevent blowouts. In addition, the drilling fluid must be thick enough to coat the wellbore with a cake, which serves to temporarily seal the walls of the well until casing can be installed.

C irculating equipment includes the mud pump, the discharge line, the standpipe, the rotary hose, the swivel, and the jelly, the drill pipe, the drill collars, the bit, the annulus, the return line, the shale shaker, the desilter, the desander, the mud tanks, and the suction line.

The mud pump takes mud from the mud tanks and sends it out a discharge line to a standpipe. The standpipe is a steel pipe mounted vertically on one leg of the mast or derrick. Mud flows out of the standpipe and into the rotary hose, which is connected to the swivel and then goes down the kelly, the drill stem, out the bit. It does a sharp U-turn and heads back up the hole in the annulus carrying the cuttings made by the bit.

Finally, the mud leaves the hole through a steel pipe called the “mud return line” and falls over a vibrating, screenlike device called the “shale shaker”. It acts like a sifter and screens out the cuttings. Except in environmentally sensitive areas on land, the cuttings fall into the reserve pit, the earthen pit excavated when the site was being prepared. In areas where the contractor cannot use a reserve pit because of the environmental reasons, the shaker dumps the cuttings into a special receptacle. Later, the cuttings are properly disposed of. The mud drains back into the mud tanks where the mud pump recycles it downhole. The circulating system is essentially a closed system. The system circulates the mud over and over throughout the drilling of the well. From time to time, however, crew members may add water, clay, or other chemicals to make up for losses or to adjust the mud’s properties as the hole drills into new and different formations.

Several pieces of auxiliary equipment keep the mud in good shape. The shale shaker sifts out the normal-sized cutting. Sometimes, though, the bit creates particles so small that they fall through the shaker with the mud. So, after the mud passes through the shaker, the system sends the mud through desanders, desilters, mud cleaners, and mud centrifuges. These pieces of equipment remove fine particles, or small solids, to keep them from contaminating the drilling mud.

A degasser removes small amounts of gas that enter the drilling mud as it circulates past a formation that contains gas. A degasser is used when the amount of gas is not enough to make the well a producer; instead, it is just enough to contaminate the mud. The driller cannot recirculate this gas-cut mud back into the hole because the gas makes the mud lighter, or less dense. If the mud gets too light, the well can kick – formation fluids under pressure can enter the hole. If not handled properly, a kick can lead to a blowout. To avoid this a device known as the “blowout preventer” is situated on the well casing below the deck of the rig.

The blowout preventer can consist of hydraulically powered devices that can seal off the well quickly and completely, preventing any potential for a well blowout should extreme downhole pressures be encountered. Pressure release systems are also installed to relieve the great pressure that can be experienced in a blowout situation.

Once the well has been drilled, and if the supervising engineers believe that the targeted formation contains commercially viable quantities of oil or natural gas, well completion is performed to allow the well to become productive.

A. Comprehension

Answer the questions:

1. What are the components of the circulating system?

2. How many types of the drilling fluid can be used while drilling?

3. What does the choice of the drilling fluid depend on?

4. According to its function, what are the most essential properties of the drilling fluid?

5. Name as many circulating equipment devices as you can and describe some of them.

6. How does the mud flow in and out of the well? Show its way using the picture from the text.

7. Why do we need to keep the mud in good condition?

8. How are different-sized particles removed from the drilling fluid?

9. What circumstances can cause a kick or a blowout?

10. What type of device is usually used to prevent a kick? How does it function?

B. Vocabulary practice

I. Give English equivalents for:

1) закачивание и выкачивание бурового раствора; 2) хранить в резервуарах; 3) мощный буровой насос; 4) протекать по шлангу для подачи бурового рас­твора; 5) выходить на дне скважины из отверстий в буровом долоте; 6) под­ниматься вверх в затрубном пространстве; 7) выносить буровой шлам; 8) проходить по трубопроводу возврата бурового раствора; 9) попадать на вибрационное сито; 10) крупные куски бурового шлама; 11) пескоотдели­тели илоотделители; 12) для удаления растворенных газов; 13) использовать повторно; 14) утилизировать после окончания бурения; 15) смесь глины с водой; 16) неконтролируемый выброс флюидов на поверхность; 17) нахо­диться на полу буровой установки; 18) выполнять несколько функций; 19) контролировать давление; 20) образовывать на стенках скважины гли­нистую корку; 21) восполнять потери; 22) поддерживать раствор в нужном состоянии; 23) проходить через сито вместе с буровым раствором; 24) загрязнять (о жидкой среде); 25) блокирование верхней части сква­жины.

II. Give Russian equivalents for:

1) to circulate down through the well; 2) pressure release systems; 3) below the deck of the well; 4) chemicals and weighting materials; 5) to cut down on drilling time; 6) to be custom designed; 7) expected subsurface conditions; 8) to carry drill cuttings away; 9) to lead to a blowout; 10) to coat the wellbore with a cake; 11) targeted formation; 12) to send mud out a discharge line; 13) a steel pipe mounted on one leg of the mast; 14) to flow out of the standpipe and into the rotary hose; 15) to do a sharp U-turn; 16) to head back up the hole in the annulus; 17) com­mercially viable quantities of gas; 18) environmentally sensitive areas; 19) to screen out the cuttings; 20) to dump the cutting into a receptacle; 21) to dispose of properly; 22) to make up for the losses; 23) to remove fine particles; 24) to recirculate gas-cut mud; 25) formation fluids under pressure

III. Fill in the appropriate word(s) from the list below into the extracts and translate them into Russian:

a) drilling fluid, cuttings, annulus, solids, to ensure, mud return line, downhole, mud pits, weighting material.

The circulating system is used to circulate … down through the drillstring and up the …, carrying the drilled … from the face of the bit to the surface. Drilling fluid (mud) is usually a mixture of water, clay, … and chemicals. The mud is mixed and conditioned in the … and then circulated … by large pumps (slush pumps). On the surface the mud is directed from the annulus, through the flowline (…) and before it re-enters the mud pits the drill cuttings are removed from the mud by … removal equipment. The mud is therefore in a continuous circulating system. The properties of the mud are constantly checked … that they are maintained as desired.

b) mud pits, duplex, maintenance, cylinders, the density, pumps, displacement, bulk additives, agitators, mixing.

The … are usually a series of large steel tanks, all interconnected and fitted with … to maintain the solids and keep … of the drilling fluid in suspension. Some pits are used for circulating (e.g. suction pit) and others for … and storing fresh mud. Most modern rigs have equipment for storing and mixing … (e.g. barite) as well as chemicals (both granular and liquid). The mixing … are generally high volume, low pressure centrifugal pumps. Positive … type pumps (mostly duplex and triplex) are used to deliver the high volumes and high pressures required. … pumps have two cylinders and are double-acting (i.e. pump on the up-stroke and the down-stroke). Triplex pumps have three … and are single-acting (i.e. pump on the up-stroke only). They have the advantage of being lighter, give smoother discharge and have lower … costs.

c) suspended, finer, removed, shale shaker, contaminants, degasser, lager particles, recycling, processing.

Once the mud has been circulated round the system it will contain … drilled cuttings, perhaps some gas and other … . These must be … before the mud is recycled. The mud passes over a …, which is basically a vibrating screen. This will remove the …, while allowing the residue (underflow) to pass into settling tanks. The … material can be removed using other solids removal equipment. If the mud contains gas from the formation it will be passed through a … which separates the gas from the liquid mud. Having passed through all the mud … equipment the mud is returned to the mud tanks for … .

d) safety devices, electrically, to detect, suction tank, density, weight, blowouts, mud temperatures.

Mud weight indicators were developed primarily as … for the prevention of … . When mud … is critical, these indicators are useful for obtaining an accurate and continuous record of all mud pumped into the well. They may be air-actuated or … actuated. An electrical mud … indicator offers a digital readout of mud-in and mud-out densities. The mud-in sensor is installed in the … to measure the density before going downhole; the mud-out sensor is placed in the shale shaker box … any density changes in the mud returns. This instrument can also be arranged to read … in and out of the well.

V. Match the following terms with their definitions and give their Russian equivalents:

standpipe, kick, shale shaker, blowout, mud return line, annulus, desilter

1. The space between two concentric circles. In the petroleum industry, it is usually the space surrounding a pipe in the wellbore, or the space between tubing and casing, or the space between tubing and the wellbore.

2. A vertical pipe rising along the side of the derrick or mast, which joins the discharge line leading from the mud pump to the rotary hose and through which mud is pumped into the hole.

3. A vibrating screen used to remove cuttings from the circulating fluid in rotary drilling operations.

4. A centrifugal device for removing very fine particles from drilling fluid to keep the amount of solids in the fluid at the lowest possible point.

5. An entry of water, gas, oil, or other formation fluid into the wellbore during drilling. It occurs because the pressure exerted by the column of drilling fluid is not great enough to overcome the pressure exerted by the fluids in the formation drilled.

6. An uncontrolled flow of gas, oil, or other well fluids into the atmosphere or into an underground formation. It can occur when formation pressure exceeds the pressure applied to it by the column of drilling fluid.

7. A trough or pipe that is placed between the surface connections at the wellbore and the shale shaker and through which drilling mud flows on its return to the surface from the hole.

V. Explain the following terms using a specialized dictionary and glossary, give their Russian equivalents and make up your own sentences with them:

drilling fluid, drilling mud, gas-cut mud, air drilling, drill cuttings.

VI. Give English translation for:

1. Система циркуляции предназначена для закачивания и выкачивания из скважины бурового раствора, который хранится в резервуарах, расположенных на поверхности рядом с буровой установкой.

2. Буровые насосы – мощные насосы, приводимые в действие первичными двигателями. Выходя из насосов, раствор протекает по длинной резиновой трубке, называемой шлангом для подачи бурового раствора, и наконец попадает в вертлюг.

3. Затем раствор перемещается вниз по полой вращающейся буровой колонне и выходит на дне скважины из отверстий в буровом долоте. Отверстия, называемые промывочными насадками, расположены между каждой из пар шарошек.

4. Буровой раствор вбирает в себя обломки пород (буровой шлам) и поднимается вверх по скважине в затрубном пространстве между вращающейся буровой колонной и стенками скважины.

5. В верхней части скважины поднявшийся буровой раствор сквозь противовыбросовые превенторы проходит по трубопроводу возврата бурового раствора, затем попадает на вибрационные сита.

6. Сита бывают либо с одним, либо с двумя фильтрами. В двухситном фильтре одно сито предназначено для более крупных обломков, другое – для мелких. Сита наклонены на 10° относительно горизонтали, для того чтобы обломки под действием вибрации скатывались вниз в запасной амбар для бурового раствора.

7. Буровой раствор проходит также сквозь другие приспособления для удаления твердой фазы, например гидроциклонные пескоотделители или ситогидроцикдонные илоотделители.

8. Вблизи резервуаров для бурового раствора, но в стороне от буровой установки располагается обширный запасной амбар. Здесь хранится отработанный буровой раствор, который может быть использован повторно, а также буровой шлам из вибрационных сит.

9. Буровой раствор как таковой представляет собой смесь глины с водой (на водной основе), с нефтепродуктом (на углеводородной основе), со смесью нефти и воды (эмульсионный раствор).

10. Обычный буровой раствор приготавливают из пресной воды и бентонита. Бентонит – это особый сорт глины, образующий коллоидный раствор, т.е. глина может находиться в воде во взвешенном состоянии в течение длительного времени после окончания перемешивания.

11. Добавляя бентонит, вязкость растворов можно повышать, а разбавляя водой понижать. Также могут вводиться различные добавки, благодаря которым раствор приобретает дополнительные свойства.

12. Клапан ведущей бурильной трубы позволят буровому раствору циркулировать по буровой колонне, однако для предотвращения попадания флюидов на поверхность его закрывают с помощью ручного шестиугольного ключа в процессе наращивания буровой колонны.

13. Противовыбросовые превенторы используются для блокировки верхней части скважины, их монтируют наверху скважины под полом буровой установки.

14. Превенторы представляют собой задвижки, которые приводятся в действие гидравлическим или ручным приводом для закрытия скважины в случае возникновения выброса.

15. В любой скважине возможен выброс, если давление бурового раствора ниже давления пластовой жидкости или встречаются пласты с аномально высоким давлением, поровое давление которых выше гидростатического давления раствора.

C. Discussion

Topics:

1. Mud circle in the well: the main stages.

2. Positive displacement mud pumps: triplex and duplex pumps.

3. Different types of the drilling fluid and their properties.

Unit 5. The Many Roles of Drilling Fluids

Active vocabulary

	drilling fluid (mud)	буровой раствор
	suspension	взвешенное состояние; суспензия
	buoyancy	плавучесть
	lubrication and cooling	смазка и охлаждение
	thick gel	густой гель
	pressure control	регулирование давления; контроль давления
	weight of the drilling fluid	масса/ вес бурового раствора
	density	плотность
	weighting agent	утяжелитель
	friction and heat	трение и нагревание
	special additives	специальные добавки
	oil-based fluid	буровой раствор на нефтяной основе/ на углеводородной основе
	high content of sth	высокое содержание чего-л.
	inhibitive fluid	Ингибированный буровой раствор
	harsh (environment)	тяжелые (зд. условия)
	proper (balance)	надлежащий/ требуемый баланс
	exposed (rock formations)	подвергающаяся воздействию (горная порода)
	stable/ unstable (walls of the wellbore)	устойчивые/ неустойчивые (стенки скважины)
	(pressure) exerted by	(давление) создаваемое чем-л.
	rock formation pore fluid pressure	пластовое давление
	lined with a steel casing	выложенный стальными обсадными трубами
	to fracture	растрескивать/ разламывать
	to be adjusted to meet the conditions	настраивать/ корректировать для удовлетворения условиям
	to avoid the loss of sth	избегать потерь чего-л.
	to maintain sth	поддерживать в нужном состоянии
	to be laden with sth	иметь что-л. в изобилии
	to wash away	вымывать
	to clog the pores	закупоривать поры (в стенке ствола скважины)
	to immerse	погружать (в жидкую среду)
	to extend the life of the drill bit	продлять срок службы долота
	to gush from a rig	фонтанировать из скважины
	to revert to previous form	вернуться в исходное состояние
	to prevent an accident	предотвращать осложнения
	to counter sth	противостоять чему-л.
	in other ways	другими способами
	down the drill pipe and up the well bore	вниз по бурильной трубе и вверх по стволу скважины
	in a controlled manner	контролируемым путем
	to encourage the research and development	стимулировать исследования и развитие
	to sink to the bottom	погрузиться на дно
	to jam the drill	сдавливать/ блокировать бур

The harsh environment in underground drilling operations encouraged the research and development of drilling fluids that can fill several crucial roles in the drilling process: suspension, pressure control, stabilization of formations, buoyancy, lubrication and cooling.

Suspension

The flow of drilling fluid down the drill pipe and up the borehole sometimes stops, either because of a problem, or in order to raise the drill pipe up and out of the hole to allow the bit to be changed. When drilling stops the cuttings suspended in the fluid can sink to the bottom of the hole jamming the drill. Drilling fluids are designed to have a very interesting property that takes care of this problem. The thickness, or viscosity, of the fluid increases as movement of the fluid slows. When the fluid stops moving it forms a thick gel that suspends the rock cuttings and keeps them from sinking to the bottom of the borehole. When the fluid starts moving again it becomes thinner and reverts to its previous thin, liquid form.

Pressure control

There is a popular image of oil gushing from a rig, high into the sky, while workers rejoice at having found oil. Actually, such blowouts are rare and no cause for celebration since the goal is to extract the oil in a controlled manner. Mud is designed to prevent such accidents by counteracting the natural pressure of fluids in rock formation. A proper balance must be achieved in which the pressure of the drilling fluid against the walls of the borehole is enough to counter the pressure exerted by both rock formations and by oil or gas, but not so much that it damages the well. If the weight of the drilling fluid is too great it could cause the rock to fracture and the drilling fluid would be lost into the ground.

The pressure of a liquid depends on its density. Weighting agents may be added to the drilling fluid to increase its density, and thus, the pressure it exerts on the walls of the borehole. The density of the liquid may be adjusted to meet the conditions in the well.

Stabilization of the Exposed Rock Formation

There are two phases of the drilling process. At first drilling proceeds through rock that does not contain oil. The goal is to move as quickly as possible and get to the oil-bearing rock - the reservoir. The priority is on keeping the exposed rock formation in the borehole stable while avoiding the loss of drilling fluid. By maintaining drilling fluid pressure above rock formation pore fluid pressure, there is a natural tendency for the drilling fluid to enter permeable rock in the formation. With special additives in the drilling fluids this can be prevented.

The drilling fluid may interact with the surrounding rock in other ways. For example, if the rock is laden with salt, water will dissolve the salt and tend to make the walls of the borehole unstable. An oil-based fluid would be better in this situation. Rock formations with a high clay content also may tend to be washed away by water. Such formations require an inhibitive fluid to maintain a stable wellbore and prevent enlargement, or wash outs. As drilling progresses, the wellbore is lined with a steel casing which is cemented in place to provide both wellbore stability and a route to the surface for oil when the reservoir is reached. After reaching the reservoir the composition of the drilling fluid may have to be changed to avoid clogging the pores of the rock. Keeping the pores open will allow oil to flow more freely into the borehole and up to the surface.

Buoyancy

A well may be many thousands of feet or meters deep. A steel drill pipe of such great length weighs many tons. Immersing the drill pipe in fluid produces a buoyancy effect, reducing its weight and putting less stress on the drilling mechanism.

Lubrication and cooling

When metal moves against rock there is friction and heat. Drilling fluids provide lubrication and cooling to keep the process moving along smoothly, and to extend the life of the drill bit. Lubrication may be especially important on extended reach or horizontal wells where the friction between the drill pipe, drill bit and rock surfaces must be kept to a minimum.

A. Comprehension

Answer the questions:

1. What are the most important roles of the drilling fluid?

2. What happens to the drilling fluid when it stops moving?

3. Why is suspension effect necessary in the drilling process?

4. Do drillers need to control pressures in the bore hole? Why?

5. How is the desired pressure of the drilling fluid maintained?

6. What are the causes of the wellbore instability?

7. How can the walls of the wellbore be kept stable?

8. Why do mud engineers have to change the composition of the drilling

fluid at the final drilling stage?

9. How can you explain the buoyancy effect? Does it help whole drilling?

10) What could happen to the drilling equipment without lubrication and cooling?

B. Vocabulary practice

I. Give English equivalents for:

1) удаление бурового шлама; 2) течение жидкости в призабойной зоне; 3) характеристики раствора и скорость циркуляции в затрубном пространстве; 4) увеличить вязкость раствора; 5) охлаждение породоразрушающего инструмента и бурильных труб; 6) нагрев инструмента вследствие трения; 7) удержание выбуренной породы во взвешенном состоянии; 8) добавить утяжелитель; 9) превращаться в гель при отсутствии движения; 10) вернуться в первоначальное жидкое состояние; 11) сохранение устойчивости стенок скважины; 12) размывающее действие бурового раствора; 13)образование фильтрационной корки на стенках ствола скважины; 14) создание гидростатического равновесия в системе «ствол скважины – пласт»; 15) образование трещин с последующим поглощением раствора; 16) избегать осложнения в процессе бурения; 17) пластовое давление больше гидростатического; 18) предотвращать фонтанирование из скважины; 19) плотность раствора и высота столба жидкости; 20) достичь нефтеносного пласта; 21) изменять состав бурового раствора; 22) уменьшить вес за счет погружения колонны в жидкость; 23) эффект плавучести; 24) продлить срок службы долота; 25) осаждение бурового шлама на дно скважины.

II. Give Russian equivalents for:

1) underground drilling operations; 2) the flow of the drilling fluid down the drill pipe; 3) cuttings suspended in the fluid; 4) to slow the movement of the fluid; 5) to form a thick gel; 6) to keep the process moving along smoothly; 7) to become thinner and revert to the liquid form; 8) oil gushing from a rig; 9) to rejoice at having found oil; 10) to extract the oil in a controlled manner; 11) to achieve a proper balance; 12) putting less stress on the drilling mechanism; 13) to fracture the rock; 14) to add weighting agents; 15) the pressure exerted on the walls; 16) to adjust the liquid density to meet the conditions in the well; 17) stabilization of the exposed rock formations; 18) to proceed through the rock; 19) to get to the oil-bearing rock; 20) avoiding the loss of the drilling fluid; 21) to enter permeable rock; 22) to interact with the surrounding rock in other ways; 23) with a high clay content; 24) to be washed away by water; 25) to maintain a stable wellbore.

III. Fill in the appropriate word(s) from the list below into the extracts and translate them into Russian:

a) drilling mud, mud engineer, drilled cuttings, selected, borehole, properties,

flowing from, rotary, total cost

Drilling fluid or … is a critical component in the … drilling process. Its primary functions are to remove the … from the borehole whilst drilling and to prevent fluids from … the formations being drilled, into the … . It has however many other functions. Since it is such an integral part of the drilling process, many of the problems encountered during the drilling of a well can be directly, or indirectly, attributed to the drilling fluids and therefore these fluids must be carefully … and/or designed to fulfill their role in the drilling process.

The cost of the mud can be as high as 10-15% of the … of the well. In view of the high cost of not maintaining good mud … an operating company will usually hire a service company to provide a drilling fluid specialist (…) on the rig to formulate, continuously monitor and, if necessary, treat the mud.

b) removed from, density, requirements, rheological, gelling, surface, suspend, drilling efficiency, function, static

The primary … of drilling fluid is to ensure that the rock cuttings generated by

the drill bit are continuously … the wellbore. If these cuttings are not removed from the bit face the … will decrease. The mud must be designed such that it can: 1) carry the cuttings to … while circulating; 2) … the cuttings while not circulating; 3) drop the cuttings out of suspension at surface.

The … properties of the mud must be carefully engineered to fulfil these … . The carrying capacity of the mud depends on the annular velocity, … and viscosity of the mud. The ability to suspend the cuttings depends on the … (thixotropic) properties of the mud. This gel forms when circulation is stopped and the mud is … .

c) hydrostatic, high, lost circulation, viscosified, mud weight, returning, high

enough, fracture

The … pressure exerted by the mud column must be … to prevent an influx of formation fluids into the wellbore. However, the pressure in the wellbore must not be too high or it may cause the formation to … and this will result in the loss of expensive mud into the formation. The flow of mud into the formation

whilst drilling is known as … . This is because a certain proportion of the mud is not … to surface but flowing into the formation. The … must be selected so that it exceeds the pore pressures but does not exceed the fracture pressures of the formations being penetrated. Barite, and in some cases Haemitite, is added to ... mud as a weighting material. These minerals are used because of their …density.

d) chemicals, stability, mudweight, caused by, hydration, bottomhole pressure, troublesome, unstable, non water-based, inhibited

Data from adjacent wells will be useful in predicting borehole … problems that

can occur in … formations (eg … shales, highly permeable zones, lost circulation, overpressured zones).

Shale instability is one of the most common problems in drilling operations. It may be … either one or both of the following two mechanisms:

• the pressure differential between the … in the borehole and the

pore pressures in the shales and/or,

• … of the clay within the shale by mud filtrate containing water.

The first type instability can be overcome by increasing the … . The hydration of the clays can only be overcome by using … muds, or partially addressed by treating the mud with … which will reduce the ability of the water in the mud to hydrate the clays in the formation. These muds are known as … muds.

IV. Match the following terms with their definitions and give their Russian equivalents:

weighting material, fluid, kill-weight fluid, mud engineer, buoyancy, mud weight.

1. A high-specific gravity and finely divided material used to increase density of a drilling fluid.

2. The upward force acting on an object placed in a fluid. This force is equal to the weight of fluid displaced by the object.

3. An employee of a drilling fluid supply company whose duty is to test and maintain the drilling mud properties that are specified by the operator.

4. A substance (mostly liquids and gases) that flows and yields to any force tending to change its shape.

5. A measure of density of a drilling fluid expressed as pounds per gallon, pounds per cubic foot, or kilograms per cubic metre. It is directly related to the amount of pressure the column of drilling mud exerts at the bottom of the hole.

6. A mud which density is high enough to produce a hydrostatic pressure at the point of influx in a wellbore and shut off flow into the well. It must be available quickly to avoid loss of control of the well or a blowout.

V. Explain the following terms using a specialized dictionary and glossary, give their Russian equivalents and make up your own sentences with them:

drilling fluid, drilling mud, weighting materials, air drilling, drill cuttings

VI. Give t English translation for:

1. Вся выбуренная порода должна эффективно удаляться с забоя во избежание переизмельчения шлама и дополнительного износа породоразрушающего инструмента и бурильных труб.

2. Способность бурового раствора удалять шлам зависит частично от характеристик раствора и скорости циркуляции. Когда мощности бурового насоса недостаточно для обеспечения необходимой скорости восходящего потока бурового раствора, можно увеличить вязкость раствора, особенно, предел текучести.

3. Буровой раствор, омывая породоразрушающий инструмент, в результате конвекционного обмена отводит тепло. Эффективность охлаждения зависит от расхода бурового раствора, его теплофизических свойств и начальной температуры, а также от размеров и конструктивных особенностей бурового инструмента.

4. Удержание частиц породы и утяжелителя во взвешенном состоянии в промывочной жидкости, находящейся в скважине необходимо для предотвращения прихватов бурильного инструмента при прекращении циркуляции.

5. Фильтрационные свойства бурового раствора исследуют, пропуская раствор сквозь фильтр на фильтр-прессе. При этом измеряют толщину и консистентность глинистой корки на фильтре, количество прошедшей через фильтр жидкости, pH, а также определяют содержание твердой фазы бурового раствора.

6. Активное воздействие бурового раствора на забой обусловлено, главным образом, за счет кинетической энергии потока на выходе из бурового снаряда. При бурении особо мягких пород размывающее действие бьющей из долота струи бурового раствора помогает процессу.

7. Еще одна функция бурового раствора – регулирование давления в скважине и предотвращение выбросов. На дне скважины действуют две силы, составляющие давление флюидов.

8. Давление в порах породы (пластовое и гидростатическое) выдавливает флюиды из породы в скважину. Давление, вызванное массой заполняющего скважину бурового раствора, вдавливает флюиды обратно.

9. Ситуация, когда давление подземных пород выше, чем давление бурового раствора, называется бурением с отрицательным дифференциальным давлением; она может привести к тому, что вода, газ и нефть будут выходить из породы в скважину. Это, в свою очередь, повлечет за собой оседание стенок скважины и потерю оборудования. В некоторых случаях может произойти неконтролируемый мощный выброс флюидов на поверхность.

10. Для регулирования гидростатического давления обычно массу бурового раствора увеличивают до таких значений, чтобы она создавала давление, превышающее давление флюидов, содержащихся в глубинных породах (положительное дифференциальное давление).

11. Некоторая часть бурового раствора в процессе бурения попадает в окружающие породы, которые действуют как фильтр. Твердые частицы оседают на стенках скважины, образуя по мере вдавливания жидкости в породу глинистую корку. Твердость корки очень высока, она стабилизирует стенки скважины и предотвращает попадание в скважину флюидов.

12. При выборе бурового раствора необходимо также учитывать его коррозионную и абразивную активность. Коррозионную активность снижают введением специальных добавок – ингибиторов коррозии. Для уменьшения абразивного износа буровые растворы следует регулярно очищать на поверхности от твердых абразивных частиц.

13. Один из наиболее прогрессивных методов снижения коэффициента трения является введение в буровой раствор специальных органических или комбинированных добавок, в результате чего образуется эмульсия, обладающая смазочными свойствами.

14. Буровые растворы со смазочными свойствами обеспечивают ряд дополнительных положительных эффектов: увеличение механической скорости, повышение стойкости бурильных труб, снижение затрат мощности на вращение бурильной колонны, снижение потерь напора при циркуляции.

15. Дисперсионная среда бурового раствора с добавленными понизителями твердости, проникая в зону предразрушения и распределяясь по микротрещинам, образует на поверхностях горных пород адсорбционные пленки (сольватные слои). Эти пленки производят расклинивающее действие в зонах, расположенных вблизи поверхности обнажаемых горных пород, вследствие чего создаются лучшие условия их разрушения.

C. Discussion

Topics:

1. Functions and properties of a drilling fluid.

2. Field tests on drilling fluids.

3. Composition of water-based and oil-based muds.

Unit 6. Drilling the Surface Hole

Active vocabulary

	rathole	1. шурф под квадрат 2. часть скважины меньшего диаметра; опережающая скважина малого диаметра
	mousehole	шурф под однотрубку (под полом буровой вышки)
	conductor hole	скважина для спуска направляющей колонны
	slips	1. клин, плашка (для захвата бурильных труб) 2. шлипс
	weight indicator	индикатор нагрузки на буровой инструмент
	joint of drill pipe	звено бурильных труб, заканчивающееся замком
	floorhand	третий помощни бурильщика
	tongs (wrench)	1. трубный ключ (для труб большого диаметра) 2. щипцы; захваты
	tool joint	замковое соединение, бурильный замок
	breakout cathead	шпилевая катушка для свинчивания бурильных труб
	kelly spinner	вращатель для навинчивания ведущей бурильной трубы
	bottom	забой (скважины); плоскость забоя
	surface hole	1. шурф под кондуктор; кондукторная часть ствола скважины 2. часть скважины от поверхности до подошвы верхнего водоносного горизонта
	newly added (joint)	только что присоединенная однотрубная свеча
	predetermined (depth)	заданная глубина
	soft, sticky (formations)	мягкая и вязкая порода
	gravel bed	гравийный слой
	final (tightness)	окончательная затяжка
	freshwater-bearing (formation)	водоносный слой с пресной водой
	entire (drill string)	вся бурильная колонна
	to release the drawworks brake	отпускать тормоз буровой лебедки
	to make (drill) a hole	бурить скважину
	to monitor the amount of weight	следить за количеством веса
	to drill down	проходить скважину на длину ведущей бурильной трубы
	to hoist the drill string	поднимать бурильную колонну
	to make a connection	нарастить бурильную трубу;
	to turn (spin) sth	вращать что-либо
	to be exposed in the opening	показаться в проеме
	to set the slips around sth	закрепить плашки вокруг чего-л.
	to latch tongs on	закрепить (защелкнуть) захваты
	to pull on the line	потянуть канат
	to break out (loosen) the joint	развинчивать (напр. соединение бурильных труб)
	to mount sth on/ near	крепить что-л. на/ около
	to back sth out (uncrew sth)	развинчивать что-л.
	to rig up	производить сборку (буровой установки)
	to buck up (tighten) the joint	докреплять замок для бурильных труб
	to thread the joint together	завернуть резьбу, свинчивать
	to trip out	подъём инструмента из скважины
	to run casing into the hole	спускать обсадную колонну
	to actuate the rotary table	запустить буровой ротор
	to stick out of sth	высовываться; торчать
	to suspend	вешать, подвешивать
	to engage sth	приводить в действие (какое-л. устройство)
	to make up the bit on	закрепить долото на чем-л.
	to pick sth up	поднимать, подбирать; забирать
	to stab	заводить конец верхней трубы в муфту нижней (при свинчивании)
	and the like	и тому подобное
	once	как только
	at this point	в этот момент
	relatively near	относительно близко

After the rathole crew prepared the initial 15 metres of the hole, the rig crew is ready to begin drilling the first part of the hole. They make up the bit on the end of the first drill collar, and they lower both bit and drill collar into the conductor hole. They make up enough collars and drill pipe to lower the bit to bottom. On a rig using a rotary table and kelly, the driller then picks up the kelly out of the rathole where it has been waiting. Crew members then stab and make up the kelly onto the topmost joint of drill pipe sticking up out of the rotary table. The slips suspend this joint (and the entire drill string) in the rotary table.

With the kelly made up, the driller starts the mud pump, lowers the kelly drive bushing to engage the master bushing. The driller actuates the rotary table to begin rotating the drill stem and bit. The driller gradually releases the drawworks brake, and the rotating bit touches bottom and begins making hole.

Using an instrument called the "weight indicator," the driller moni­tors the amount of weight put on the bit by the drill collars. After the bit drills about 9 metres, which is about the length of a joint of drill pipe, crew members must add a new joint of pipe to drill deeper. At this point, crew members say that the "kelly is drilled down," meaning that the bit has made enough hole so that the top of the kelly is very near the kelly drive bushing.

With the kelly (or the joint of drill pipe on top-drive rigs) drilled down, the driller stops rotating, picks up (hoists) the drill string, and stops the mud pump. The floorhands are ready to make a connection - that is, they are ready to add (connect) a new joint of drill pipe to the drill string so that the bit can drill another 30 feet or so.

To make a connection the driller picks up the drill string high enough for the kelly to clear the rotary table - that is, the driller uses the drawworks to hoist the traveling block, hook, and swivel up into the derrick or mast so that the first joint of drill pipe is exposed in the opening in the rotary table.

With the kelly clear of the rotary table, the floorhands set the slips around the joint of drill pipe to suspend the drill string in the hole. They then latch two big wrenches called "tongs" on the kelly joint and the tool joint of the joint of drill pipe. A tong pullline - a length of strong wire rope - runs from the end of the tongs to the breakout cathead on the drawworks. The driller engages the automatic cathead, and it starts pulling on the line with tremendous force. The pulling force on the tongs breaks out (loosens) the threaded joint of the kelly and drill pipe. Once the joint is loosened, the driller engages a kelly spinner, which is a special air motor mounted near the top of the kelly. The kelly spinner rapidly turns or spins the kelly to back it out (unscrew it) from the drill pipe joint.

With the kelly backed out of the drill pipe's tool joint, crew members swing the kelly over to the mousehole, that lined hole in the rig floor the crew prepared when they rigged up. Earlier, crew members placed a joint of drill pipe into the mousehole so that it would be ready to add to the drill string.

They stab the kelly into the joint in the mousehole, and the driller spins up the kelly into the joint using the kelly spinner. Crew members grab the tongs, latch them onto the kelly and pipe, and buck up (tighten) the joint to final tightness. Next, the driller uses the drawworks to raise the kelly and attached joint out of the mousehole. The crew stabs the end of the new joint into the joint suspended by the slips in the rotary table, and, using a spinning wrench and the tongs, they thread the joints together and buck them up to final tightness. Finally, the driller lifts up the kelly and attached string a small amount, the crew removes the slips), and the driller lowers the newly added joint and kelly until the kelly drive bushing engages the master bushing. The driller starts the pump, begins rotating, and lowers the bit back to bottom to continue making hole. Crew members make a connection each time the kelly is drilled down - each time the bit makes about 30 feet of hole. Near the surface, where the drilling is usually easy, they may make several connections while they are on tour.

At a predetermined depth, perhaps as shallow as a few hundred feet (metres) to as deep as two or three thousand feet (metres), drilling stops. Drilling stops because crew members drill this first part of the hole - the surface hole - only deep enough to get past soft, sticky formations, gravel beds, freshwater-bearing formations, and the like that lie relatively near the surface. At this point, crew members remove (trip out) the drill string and bit from the hole. They trip out the drill string and bit so that they can run casing into the hole.

A. Comprehension

Answer the questions:

1. What has to be prepared before drilling the first part of the hole?

2. How is the drill string made up before the drill bit touches the bottom?

3. What is the function of slips in tripping operations?

4. What does the driller do when the kelly is made up?

5. When do the crew members need to add a new joint?

6. What steps are involved in making a connection?

7. Name the devices used to loosen and unscrew the kelly from the drill pipe?

8. When can the new joints be temporarily placed before adding to the drill string?

9. What procedures should be performed after the connection is made?

10. Why does the drilling stop when the surface hole is finished?

B. Vocabulary practice

I. Give English equivalents for:

1) бригада для выполнения опережающей скважины; 2) закрепить долото на конце первой утяжеленной трубы; 3) опустить в скважину на забой; 4) взять ведущую бурильную трубу из шурфа; 5) заводить концы труб; 6) удерживать всю бурильную колонну; 7) включить буровой насос; 8) привести в действие основной вкладыш; 9) вращать бурильную штангу; 10) при использовании инструмента под названием; 1). длина однотрубки; 12) нарастить бурильную трубу; 13) пройти на длину ведущей бурильной трубы; 14) присоединить новую однотрубную свечу к бурильной колонне; 15) показаться в отверстии; 16) защелкнуть бурильный замок; 17) запустить автоматическую катушку; 18) ослабить резьбу; 19) тяговое усилие, прилагаемое к ключу; 20) установленный на чем-л.; 21) отвинтить что-то от чего-то; 22) используя навинчиватель для ведущей трубы; 23) свинтитить однотрубки до окончательной затяжки; 24) на полу буровой вышки; 25) пройти сквозь мягкие породы.

II. Give Russian equivalents for:

1) rathole crew; 2) to prepare the initial 15m of the hole; 3) on the end of the first drill collar; 4) to lower the bit to the bottom; 5) to make up the kelly on to the topmost joint of drill pipe; 6) sticking out of the rotary table; 7) to gradually release the brake; 8) amount of weight put on the bit; 9) to add a new joint of pipe; 10) the kelly is drilled down; 11) high enough for the kelly to clear the rotary table; 12) to hoist the travelling block up into the derrick; 13) to suspend the drill string in the hole; 14) a length of strong wire rope; 15) breakout cathead on the drawworks; 16) with tremendous force; 17) to loosen the threaded joint of the kelly; 18) a special air motor; 19) to swing the kelly over to the mousehole; 20) a lined hole in the rig floor; 21) the pulling force on the tongs; 22) to buck up the joint to final tightness; 23) to stab the end of the new joint into the joint suspended by slips in the rotary table; 24) spinning wrench and the tongs; 25) to make several connections.

III. Fill in the appropriate word(s) from the list below into the extracts and translate them into Russian:

a) surface formations, outside, pipe, drilling rig, the conductor, set up, ground level.

The first stage in the operation is to drive a large diameter … to a depth of approximately 100ft below … using a truck mounted pile-driver. This pipe (usually called casing or, in the case of the first pipe installed, …) is installed to prevent the unconsolidated … from collapsing whilst drilling deeper. Once this conductor, which typically has an … diameter (O.D.) of 30” is in place the full sized … is brought onto the site and … over the conductor, and preparations are made for the next stage of the operation.

b) reservoir, are removed, smaller and smaller, annulus, drillpipe, pressure problems, casing, hole section, face of the bit.

If possible, the entire well, from surface to the … would be drilled in one … . However, this is generally not possible because of geological and formation … which are encountered whilst drilling. The well is therefore drilled in sections, with … being used to isolate the problem formations once they have been penetrated. This means however that the wellbore diameter gets … as the well goes deeper and deeper.

Whilst drilling mud is circulated down the …, across the face of the drillbit, and up the … between the drillpipe and the borehole, carrying the drilled cuttings from the … to surface. At surface the cuttings … from the mud before it is circulated back down the drillpipe, to collect more cuttings.

c) suspend pipe, drillstring, wrenches, derrick, master bushing, rotary table, connection, stand, driller, make up tongs.

Slips are used to … in the rotary table when making or breaking a … . Slips are made up of three tapered, hinged segments, which are wrapped around the top of the drillpipe so that it can be suspended from the … . To unscrew (or “break”) a connection, two large … (or tongs) are used. A … (3 lengths of drillpipe) of pipe is raised up into the … until the lowermost drillpipe appears above the rotary table. The roughnecks drop the slips into the gap between the drillpipe and … in the rotary table to wedge and support the rest of the … . The breakout tongs are latched onto the pipe above the connection and the … below the connection. With the makeup tong held in position, the … operates the breakout tong and breaks out the connection.

d) make a connection, pulls on, air, means, subs or special tools, tighten up, kelly spinner.

To … the make-up tong is put above, and the breakout tong below the connection. This time the breakout tong is fixed, and the driller … the makeup tong until the connection is tight. Although the tongs are used to break or … a connection to the required torque, other … of screwing the connection together, prior to torquing up, are available:

• For making up the kelly, the lower tool joint is fixed by a tong while the kelly is rotated by a … . The kelly spinner is a machine which is operated by compressed … .

• A drillpipe spinner (power tongs) may be used to make up or back off a connection (powered by compressed air).

• For making up some … (e.g. MWD subs) a chain tong is often used.

IV. Match the following terms with their definitions and give their Russian equivalents:

kelly drive bushing, rathole, mousehole, slips, kelly spinner, joint, tongs.

1. A hole in the rig floor, which is lined with casing that projects above the floor and into which the kelly and swivel are placed when hoisting operations are in progress.

2. A pneumatically operated device mounted on the top of the kelly that, when actuated, causes the kelly to turn, or spin. It is used when making up or breaking out the kelly from the drill string.

3. The large wrenches used to make up or break out drill pipe, casing, tubing, or the other pipe.

4. A device that fits into the master bushing of the rotary table and through which the kelly runs.

5. Wedge-shaped pieces of metal with teeth or other gripping elements that are used to prevent pipe from slipping down into the hole or to hold pipe in place.

6. A single length (from 5 metres to 14.5 metres, depending on its range length) of drill pipe, drill collar, casing, or tubing that has threaded connections at both ends.

7. An opening through the rig floor, usually lined with, inti which a length of drill pipe is placed temporarily for later connection to the drill string.

V. Explain the following terms using a specialized dictionary and glossary, give their Russian equivalents and make up your own sentences with them:

to trip in/ to trip out, to make a trip, to make a connection, to stab.

VI. Give English translation for:

1. Прежде всего, геологи, геофизики и. или инженеры-нефтяники выбирают расположение буровой площадки, т.е. место, где будет производиться бурение и ожидается обнаружение промышленных запасов газа или нефти.

2. Если предполагается, что скважина будет глубокой, выкапывают прямоугольный котлован (устьевую шахту) и выкладывают его бетонными плитами. Устьевая шахта обеспечивает наличие пространства над буровой платформой для установки противовыбросовых превенторов.

3. Для подвода воды к буровой площадке либо бурят рядом водозаборную скважину, либо прокладывают трубопровод.

4. Для бурения скважины средней или большой глубины сначала создают неглубокую (7–30м) скважину для спуска направляющей колонны, имеющую большой диаметр.

5. В отверстие устанавливают и цементируют крупную трубу (50см в диаметре), называемую направляющей обсадной колонной. Она выполняет задачу стабилизации верхней части скважины.

6. Бурильные трубы по мере проводки ствола скважины многократно соединяются в бурильную колонну, т.к. необходимо периодически заменять сносившееся долото на новое и выполнять другие работы в скважине, требующие спуско-подъемных операций.

7. В процессе бурения для удлинения трубы необходимо присоединять новые звенья, т.е. наращивать трубу. Для того чтобы ведущая бурильная труба оставалась наверху конструкции, ниже нее добавляют звенья.

8. Трубу понимают из скважины с помощью трубных элеваторов, присоединенных ко дну талевого блока и приспособленных для захвата труб.

9. Буровой ключ и ключи для труб – это приспособления для вывинчивания и захвата труб, они подвешены на канатах над полом буровой установки. Ими пользуются для сборки (свинчивания) и разборки (развинчивания) бурильных труб.

10. Для того чтобы бурильная труба не падала в ствол скважины, можно использовать стальной клин с рукоятками, который помещается в воронку бурового ротора и удерживает трубу с помощью зубцов.

11. Очередное звено бурильной трубы для наращивания располагается в отверстии в полу буровой установки, называемом шурфом для двухтрубки.

12. Буровую колонну поднимают до тех пор, пока вся ведущая бурильная труба не окажется над буровым ротором. После этого в воронку бурового ротора вставляют стальной клин, а ведущую бурильную трубу отвинчивают от верха буровой колонны, помещают над шурфом и присоединяют к следующему трубному звену.

13. Затем бурильную трубу извлекают из шурфа, передвигают к ротору и присоединяют к буровой колонне. Далее с воронки ротора удаляют стальной клин.

14. Трубы с высаженными внутрь или наружу концами имеют мелкую резьбу и соединяются между собой при помощи бурильных замков или муфт. Бурильные трубы с приваренными соединительными концами имеют равнопроходной канал и соединяются друг с другом при помощи крупной замковой резьбы.

15. Крупная замковая резьба со значительной конусностью позволяет за несколько оборотов свинчивать и развинчивать трубы, при этом герметичность обеспечивается напряженным контактом торцевых поверхностей замков.

C. Discussion

Topics:

1. Role of drilling in field development.

2. The drilling process (sequence of events and reasons behind each step in the operation).

3. Tubing makeup and breakout.

Unit 7. Directional and Horizontal Drilling

Active vocabulary

	point of entry into	место начала бурения
	slant/ directional drilling	направленное бурение; наклонно-направленное бурение
	curved well	искривлённая скважина (в одной плоскости)
	targeted deposit	заданное месторождение
	horizontal drilling	горизонтальное бурение
	proliferation of sth	распространение
	impact on sth	влияние на что-либо
	advance in	новая разработка в к.-л. области
	measurement-while-drilling technology	скважинные исследования в процессе бурения, каротаж во время бурения
	logging practice	каротаж
	steerable drilling motor	управляемый забойный двигатель
	downhole motor	забойный двигатель
	short/ medium/ long-radius well	скважина малого/ среднего/ большого радиуса
	curvature radius	радиус закругления
	developed (well)	разработанная скважина
	non-conventional (formation)	нестандартное месторождение
	coalbed methane	угольный газ
	multiple completion	заканчивание скважины с целью одновременной разработки нескольких продуктивных пластов
	sharp turning	крутой поворот
	economically feasible	экономически оправданный/ обоснованный
	tightly curved (well hole)	сильно изогнутая (скважина)
	inaccessible (area/ deposit)	недосягаемое (месторождение)
	invaluable/ crucial (technology/ advances)	значимое/ ключевое (достижение)
	given (formation)	данное (месторождение)
	marginal/ mature (field)	месторождение c ограниченными запасами
	countless (applications)	бесчисленные (применения)
	to employ the use of	применять/ использовать что-л.
	to be spaced apart	быть расположенным на расстоянии
	to gain access to	получить доступ куда-л.
	to control the well path	контролировать траекторию ствола буровой скважины
	to take a … degree turn	сделать поворот на … градусов
	to issue a patent to sb	выдать патент кому-либо
	to meet rising demand	удовлетворять растущие потребности
	to harm the environment	наносить ущерб окружающей среде
	to deviate/ bend from	отклоняться от
	to steer the equipment	направлять оборудование
	to reach a point/ a target	дойти до цели
	to drill at an angle	бурить под углом
	in many instances/ cases/ circumstances	во многих случаях
	directly underneath/ beneath	прямо под чем-л.

For many decades the only way we could extract natural gas was to drill a well straight down into the ground. However, in many instances, this is not possible, not economically feasible, or simply not efficient. Technological advances now allow us to efficiently deviate from 'straight line' drilling, and steer the drilling equipment to reach a point that is not directly underneath the point of entry. While what is known as 'slant drilling', where the well is drilled at an angle instead of directly vertical, has been around for years, new technology is allowing for the drilling of tightly curved well holes, and even wells that can take a 90 degree turn underground!

Directional drilling is the process of drilling a curved well, in order to reach a target that is not directly beneath the drill site. This is useful in many circumstances where the area above the targeted deposit is inaccessible. For example, to reach reservoirs that exist under shallow lakes, protected areas, railroads, or any other area on which the rig cannot be set up, directional drilling is employed. It is also useful for long, thin reservoirs. These types of reservoirs are not efficiently mined with a vertical completion. However, horizontal entry into the reservoir allows it to be drained more efficiently.

The difference between traditional directional or slant drilling and modern day horizontal drilling, is that with directional drilling it can take up to 2,000 feet for the well to bend from drilling at a vertical to drilling horizontally. Modern horizontal drilling, however, can make a 90 degree turn in only a few feet! The concept of horizontal drilling is not new. In fact, the first patent for horizontal drilling was issued in 1891 to Robert E. Lee, for drilling a horizontal drainhole for a vertical well. The advances in technology and the increasing focus on accessing less accessible reservoirs to meet rising demand have allowed for a proliferation of horizontal drilling.

The ability of horizontal drilling to reach and extract petroleum from formations that are not accessible with vertical drilling has made it an invaluable technology.

Horizontal drilling allows for an increase in the recoverable petroleum in a given formation, and even increases the production in fields previously thought of as marginal or mature. Horizontal drilling also allows for more economical drilling, and less impact on environmentally sensitive areas. In fact, in some areas in which drilling is not allowed for environmental reasons, it is possible to drill horizontal wells to the targeted deposit without harming the environment above. In addition, with this technology, fewer wells are needed to produce the same amount of hydrocarbons.

A number of advances were crucial to the progression of horizontal drilling. Measurement-while-drilling technology (or 'borehole telemetry') has allowed engineers and geologists to gain up-to-the-minute subsurface information, even while the well is being drilled. This avoids some of the complications of normal logging practices, and greatly increases the drilling engineer's knowledge of the well characteristics. Steerable downhole motor assemblies have also allowed for advances in horizontal drilling. While conventional drilling occasionally employs the use of downhole motors just above the drill bit to penetrate hard formations, steerable drilling motors allow the actual path of the well to be controlled while drilling.

There are three main types of horizontal wells; short-radius, medium-radius, and long-radius. Short-radius wells typically have a curvature radius of 20 to 45 feet, being the 'sharpest turning' of the three types. These wells, which can be easily dug outwards from a previously drilled vertical well, are ideal for increasing the recovery of natural gas or oil from an already developed well. They can also be used to drill non-conventional formations, including coalbed methane and tight sand reservoirs.

Medium-radius wells typically have a curvature radius of 300 to 700 feet, with the horizontal portion of the well measuring up to 3,500 feet. These wells are useful when the drilling target is a long distance away from the drillsite, or where reservoirs are spaced apart underground. Multiple completions may be used to gain access to numerous deposits at the same time.

Long-radius wells typically have a curvature radius of 1,000 to 4,500 feet, and can extend a great distance horizontally. These wells are typically used to reach deposits offshore, where it is economical to drill outwards from a single platform to reach reservoirs inaccessible with vertical drilling.

Horizontal drilling is an important innovation that will likely find countless new applications as the technology is developed. With increasing demand for natural gas, innovations like these will be invaluable to securing and bringing to surface these much needed hydrocarbons.

A. Comprehension

Answer the questions:

1. Why can’t vertical wells be used in all situations?

2. What types of well are now drilled apart from directly vertical?

3. What does directional drilling mean?

4. What reservoirs require directional or horizontal entries?

5. How long have horizontal drilling techniques been applied? Who was the first to introduce this method?

6. What are the benefits of horizontal drilling?

7. How many technological achievements made horizontal drilling possible? Name some of them.

8. How do horizontal wells differ?

9. What is the purpose of each type of a horizontal well?

10) Will there be many applications of horizontal drilling techniques in the future? Give reasons.

B. Vocabulary practice

1. Give English equivalents for:

1) отклоняться от вертикали; 2) бурение скважины под определенным углом; 3) использовать управляемый забойный двигатель; 4) продуктивный интервал параллельно пласту коллектора; 5) показатель градиента наклона; 6) скважина малого радиуса (по углу наклона); 7) увеличивать скорость и объем добычи; 8) пробурить скважину прямо под землю; 9) невозможно и экономически не приемлемо; 10) направлять буровой инструмент; 11) скважина большого изгиба; 12) применять наклонное бурение для труднодоступных мест; 13) повернуть на 90 градусов; 14) по экологическим причинам; 15) с меньшим количеством скважин для добычи одинакового объема; 16) успешное внедрение горизонтального бурения; 17) скважинные исследования в процессе бурения; 18) параметры скважины; 19) бурить с помощью управляемого забойного двигателя; 20) контролировать проходку скважины во время бурения; 21) далеко от точки заложения скважины; 22) получить доступ в несколько месторождений одновременно; 23) простираться в горизонтальной плоскости на большое расстояние; 24) многочисленные новые применения; 25) в реальном времени с помощью телеметрической системы.

II. Give Russian equivalents for:

1) straight down into the ground; 2) to deviate from ‘straight line’ drilling; 3) to steer the drilling equipment; 4) tightly curved well holes; 5) in order to reach a target; 6) directly underneath the drill site; 7) useful in many circumstances; 8) shallow lakes and protected areas; 9) to set up a rig; 10) horizontal entry into the reservoir; 11) to make a 90° turn in only a few feet; 12) to reach and extract petroleum from previously inaccessible formations; 13) marginal or mature fields; 14) less impact on environmentally sensitive areas; 15) horizontal wells to the targeted deposit; 16) crucial technological advances; 17) to gain up-to-the-minute subsurface information; 18) normal logging practices; 19) steerable downhole motor assemblies; 20) the actual path of the well; 21) to penetrate hard formations; 22) horizontal portion of the well measuring up to; 23) to bring to the surface; 24) coalbed methane and tight sand reservoirs; 25) to drill outwards from a single platform.

III. Fill in the appropriate word(s) from the list below into the extracts and translate them into Russian:

1. land drilling, course, path of the wellbore, deviation, technique, underneath, wells, reservoir, straight down, bending

In the early days of … most wells were drilled vertically, … into the reservoir. Although these … were considered to be vertical, they rarely were. Some … in a wellbore will always occur, due to formation effects and of the … drillstring. The first recorded instance of a well being deliberately drilled along a deviated … was in California in 1930. This well was drilled to exploit a … which was beyond the shoreline … the Pacific Ocean. It had been the practice to build jetties out into the ocean and build the drilling rig on the jetty. However, this became prohibitively expensive and the … of drilling deviated wells was developed. Since then many new techniques and special tools have been introduced to control the … .

2. target location, wellhead, all points, trajectory, system, efficient, three dimension, vertical depth

The … of a deviated well must be carefully planned so that the most … trajectory is used to drill between the rig and the … and ensure that the well is drilled for the least amount of money possible. When planning, and subsequently drilling the well, the position of all points along the wellpath and therefore the trajectory of the well must be considered in … . This means that the position of … on the trajectory must be expressed with respect to a three dimensional reference system. The three dimensional … that is generally used to define the position of a particular point along the wellpath is:

• the … of the point below a particular reference point

• the horizontal distance traversed from the ……. in a Northerly direction

• the distance traversed from the wellhead in an Easterly direction.

3. employed, weight on bit, bottomhole assembly, downhole to the surface, exploits, to measure, steeply dipping

Directional drilling is accomplished through the use of whipstocks, … (BHA) configurations, instruments … the path of the wellbore in three-dimensional space, data links to communicate measurements taken … , mud motors and special BHA components and drill bits. The directional driller also … drilling parameters such as … and rotary speed to deflect the bit away from the axis of the existing wellbore. In some cases, such as drilling … formations or unpredictable deviation in conventional drilling operations, directional-drilling techniques may be … to ensure that the hole is drilled vertically.

4. a bend, general concept, penetration, wellbore direction, sweeps around, steerable, the bit, pumping, does not rotate, the axis.

The … of directional drilling is simple: point … in the direction that one wants to drill. The most common way is through the use of … near the bit in a downhole … mud motor. The bend points the bit in a direction different from … of the wellbore when the entire drillstring is not rotating. By … mud through the mud motor, the bit turns while the drillstring …, allowing the bit to drill in the direction it points. When a particular … is achieved, that direction may be maintained by rotating the entire drillstring (including the bent section) so that the bit does not drill in a single direction off the wellbore axis, but instead … and its net direction coincides with the existing wellbore. Rotary steerable tools allow steering while rotating, usually with higher rates of … and ultimately smoother boreholes.

IV. Match the following terms with their definitions and give their Russian equivalents:

developed reserves, LWD (logging while drilling), steerable motor, whipstock, bottomhole assembly, downhole motor, conventional deposit

1. The measurement of formation properties during the excavation of the hole, or shortly thereafter, through the use of tools integrated into the bottomhole assembly.

2. A drilling tool made up in the drill string directly above the bit. It causes the bit to turn while the drill string remains fixed.

3. The portion of the drilling assembly below the drill pipe. It can be very simple – composed of only the bit and drill collars – or it can be very complex and made up of several drilling tools.

4. Reserves that are expected to be recovered from existing wells including reserves behind pipe.

5. A mud motor incorporating a bent housing that may be stabilized like a rotary bottomhole assembly. It can be used to steer the well bore without drillstring rotation in directional drilling operations, or to drill ahead in a rotary drilling mode.

6. An inclined wedge placed in a wellbore to force the drill bit to start drilling in a direction away from the wellbore axis.

7. A discreet accumulation related to a localized geological structural feature and/ or stratigraphic condition, typically with each accumulation bounded by a down-dip contact with an aquifer.

V. Explain the following terms using a specialized dictionary and glossary, give their Russian equivalents and make up your own sentences with them:

directional drilling, horizontal drilling, deviation of a wellbore, curvature radius, multiple completion

VI. Give English translation for:

1. В контрактах на бурение обычно есть специальный пункт, согласно которому скважина не должна отклоняться от вертикали более чем на 3° на каждые 30м и должна помещаться внутри конуса с углом не более 5°. Такая скважина называется прямой вертикальной.

2. Наличие наклонных пластов твердых пород, например, известняка зачастую не дает бурильщикам пробурить прямую скважину. Ствол скважины, имеющий некоторое непроизвольное отклонение, называется искривленным.

3. Работа современных роторных буровых установок может быть специально организована для наклонного или наклонно направленного бурения, т.е. бурения скважины под определенным углом к конкретной цели бурения.

4. Угол, под которым скважина отклоняется от вертикали, называется углом отклонения. Существует два типа отклоняющихся скважин: под углом и S-образные.

5. Современный метод формирования скважины с отклонением от вертикали предполагает использование конструкций, включающий скважинный кривой переводник, турбобур и алмазное буровое долото.

6. Результатом бурения с увеличенным отклонением от оси скважины является смещение на несколько сотен метров по горизонтали от изначальной точки, расположенной на поверхности. Самое большое в мире отклонение составляет 10км.

7. Скважина горизонтального дренажа – это наклонная скважина, бурение которой ведется в продуктивном интервале параллельно пласту коллектора. Горизонтальная часть скважины называется горизонтальной секцией.

8. Скважина горизонтального дренажа состоит из геометрической и регулируемой секций. Бурение первой верхней секции проводят по первоначальному плану – как для нормальной вертикальной скважины.

9. Регулируемая секция, имеющая отклонение от вертикали, создается на основе данных о местоположении бурового долота в формации относительно ее кровли и подошвы, получаемых в реальном времени с помощью телеметрической системы. Для продолжения бурения до цели и сквозь нее запускают управляемую забойную компоновку.

10. Горизонтальные скважины характеризуются показателем градиента наклона, физический смысл которого состоит в изменении наклона относительно горизонтали на единицу длины, по мере того, как скважина переходит от вертикальной к горизонтальной, например 8° на 100 фут.

11. Горизонтальные скважины делятся на скважины малого, среднего и большого радиусов в зависимости от угла наклона.

12. В общем случае горизонтальные скважины позволяют суммарно добывать в 5 раз больше нефти и в 5 -10 раз больше природного газа, чем вертикальные прямые скважины, при этом увеличивается и скорость добычи.

13. Горизонтальные скважины также используются в формациях с низкой проницаемостью (плотных) для повышения суммарной добычи из коллектора.

14. Еще одним вариантом применения горизонтальных скважин является предотвращение образования водяного конуса либо прорыва избыточного газа в скважину выше или ниже уровня нефтяного коллектора.

15. Глубина скважины характеризуется двумя показателями. Первый – общая (измеренная) глубина определяется вдоль ствола скважины. Второй – фактическая вертикальная глубина измеряется строго вниз и она всегда меньше, чем общая.

C. Discussion

Topics:

1. Profile planning: parameters defining the wellpath;

2. Applications of directional drilling and trajectory design of a deviated well;

3. Components parts of steerable drilling system and the mode of operation of such a system.

Chapter 5.

LEARNING OBJECTIVES:

Having worked through this chapter the student will be able to:

• describe the main types of completion

• describe the pieces of equipment used for different types of oil completion

• list and describe the functions of the wellhead

• describe the steps involved in installing the well casing, highlighting the reasons behind each step in the operation.

• identify the names of each of the component parts of casing and state its purpose.

• distinguish between two types of cementing

• describe the cementing process

• describe the procedures for running the tubing

• state the benefits of coiled and string tubing

• describe the role of the christmas tree equipment and its functions

Unit 1. Well Casing

Active vocabulary

11	casing	крепление скважины обсадными трубами
2	well / hole/borehole	(буровая) скважина; ствол скважины
3	casing/casing string	обсадка/ обсадная колонна
4	wellhead	устье скважины; оборудование устья скважины
5	well treatment	обработка скважины
6	well completion/ well completion process	заканчивание/завершение скважины; освоение скважины
7	conductor casing/pipe	направляющая обсадная колонна
8	surface casing	кондуктор; первая колонна обсадных труб
9	intermediate casing	промежуточная колонна обсадных труб
10	liner string	обсадная колонна-хвостовик
11	production casing/oil string/long string	эксплуатационная обсадная колонна
12	perforated steel liner	перфорированный стальной хвостовик
13	auger drill	1.шнековый бур 2. комплект ручного бурения
15	conduit	трубопровод
16	subsurface characteristics (of the well)	характеристики поверхностного слоя скважины
17	lifting equipment	спускоподъемный инструмент
18	blowout preventer (BOP)	превентор, противовыбросовая задвижка/ устройство;
19	workover	КРС – капитальный ремонт скважины
20	consolidation	укрепление
22	caving in	обрушение стенок скважины
23	gravel packing	гравийный фильтр
24	setting	затвердение
25	injection	закачка
28	joint	секция
29	casing shoe (guide shoe)	башмак обсадных труб, используется для не врезания колонны в стену скважины
30	tubing	НКТ – насосно-компрессорный трубопровод
31	target depth	установленная глубина
32	threaded connection	резьбовое соединение
34	to strengthen the well hole/ to stabilize the wellbore	усиливать/укреплять ствол скважины
35	to install / to set the equipment/ well casing	устанавливать оборудование/ обсадные трубы
36	to seep out of the well hole	проникать/просачиваться из скважины
38	to keep smth from doing smth	не допускать чего-либо
39	to take into account	принимать в расчет, учитывать
40	to cement casing string	цементировать обсадную колонн
42	to be contaminated (by leaking hydrocarbons)	загрязняться (из-за утечки углеводородов)
43	to verify	верифицировать, проверить
44	to eliminate	ликвидировать
45	to case off	изолировать с помощью обсадной колонны
46	to bond	соединять
47	to seal off	изолировать
48	to invade	зд. просачиваться (в пласт)

O nce a natural gas or oil well is drilled, and it has been verified that commercially viable quantities of petroleum reserves are present for extraction, the well must be 'completed' to allow for the flow of these fossil fuels out of the formation and up to the surface. This process includes strengthening the well hole with casing, evaluating the pressure and temperature of the formation, and then installing the proper equipment to ensure an efficient flow of petroleum out of the well.

Completing a well consists of a number of steps: installing the well casing, completing the well, installing the wellhead, and installing lifting equipment or treating the formation should that be required.

Installing well casing is an important part of the drilling and completion process. Well casing consists of a series of metal tubes installed in the freshly drilled hole. Casing serves to strengthen the sides of the well hole, ensure that no oil or natural gas seeps out of the well hole as it is brought to the surface, and to keep other fluids or gases from seeping into the formation through the well. A good deal of planning is necessary to ensure that the proper casing for each well is installed. Types of casing used depend on the subsurface characteristics of the well, including the diameter of the well (which is dependent on the size of the drill bit used) and the pressures and temperatures experienced throughout the well. In most wells, the diameter of the well hole decreases the deeper it is drilled, leading to a type of conical shape that must be taken into account when installing casing.

There are five different types of well casing. They include: conductor casing, surface casing, intermediate casing, liner string, production casing.

Conductor casing is installed first, usually prior to the arrival of the drilling rig. The hole for conductor casing is often drilled with a small auger drill, mounted on the back of a truck. Conductor casing, which is usually no more than 20 to 50 feet long, is installed to prevent the top of the well from caving in and to help in the process of circulating the drilling fluid up from the bottom of the well. Onshore, this casing is usually 16 to 20 inches in diameter. The conductor casing is cemented into place before drilling begins.

Surface casing is the next type of casing to be installed. It can be anywhere from a few hundred to 2,000 feet long, and is smaller in diameter than the conductor casing. When installed, the surface casing fits inside the top of the conductor casing. The primary purpose of surface casing is to protect fresh water deposits near the surface of the well from being contaminated by leaking hydrocarbons or salt water from deeper underground. It also serves as a conduit for drilling mud returning to the surface, and helps protect the drill hole from being damaged during drilling. Surface casing, like conductor casing, is also cemented into place. Regulations often dictate the thickness of the cement to be used, to ensure that there is little possibility of freshwater contamination.

Intermediate casing is usually the longest section of casing found in a well. The primary purpose of intermediate casing is to minimize the hazards that come along with subsurface formations that may affect the well. These include abnormal underground pressure zones, underground shales, and formations that might otherwise contaminated the well, such as underground salt-water deposits. In many instances, even though there may be no evidence of an unusual underground formation, intermediate casing is run as insurance against the possibility of such a formation affecting the well. These intermediate casing areas may also be cemented into place for added protection.

Liner strings are sometimes used instead of intermediate casing. Liner strings are commonly run from the bottom of another type of casing to the open well area. However, liner strings are usually just attached to the previous casing with 'hangers', instead of being cemented into place. This type of casing is thus less permanent than intermediate casing.

Production casing, alternatively called the 'oil string' or 'long string', is installed last and is the deepest section of casing in a well. This is the casing that provides a conduit from the surface of the well to the petroleum producing formation. The size of the production casing depends on a number of considerations, including the lifting equipment to be used, the number of completions required, and the possibility of deepening the well at a later time. For example, if it is expected that the well will be deepened at a later date, then the production casing must be wide enough to allow the passage of a drill bit later on. Well casing is a very important part of the completed well. In addition to strengthening the well hole, it also provides a conduit to allow hydrocarbons to be extracted without intermingling with other fluids and formations found underground. It is also instrumental in preventing blowouts, allowing the formation to be 'sealed' from the top should dangerous pressure levels be reached.

Once the casing has been set, and in most cases cemented into place, proper lifting equipment is installed to bring the hydrocarbons from the formation to the surface.

Once the casing is installed, tubing is inserted inside the casing, from the opening well at the top, to the formation at the bottom. The hydrocarbons that are extracted run up this tubing to the surface. This tubing may also be attached to pumping systems for more efficient extraction, should that be necessary.

A. Comprehension

Answer the questions:

1. What stages are included in the process of well completion?

2. Why do most wells need casing?

3. What does the type of casing used depend on?

4. What is the first type of casing? Explain its purpose.

5. What types of casing are usually used to protect neighboring formations from being contaminated? Justify your answer.

6. How can specialists minimize potential hazards while completing a well?

7. Where can liner strings be installed?

8. What parameters should be taken into consideration for the production casing installation?

9. Name as many functions of well casing as you can.

10. What equipment is used to extract oil up to the surface?