1. Comprehension

Answer the questions:

1. What is associated/ nonassociated gas?

2. When and where were the first discoveries of natu­ral gas seeps made?

3. When and where was the first known well drilled? How did the Chinese drill their wells?

4. When did natural gas become known in Europe and North America? How was it used?

5. Why did natural gas remain on the sidelines of industrial development throughout the 19th century?

6. How did long-distance gas transmission develop throughout the 20th century?

7. Why has natural gas become an important world energy source?

2. Vocabulary practice

9. Give English equivalents for:

1) встречаться растворенным в нефти при высоком давлении; 2) попутный газ\газ, добываемый без нефти; 3) просачивание газа (газопроявление); 4) воспламененный молнией; 5) первая известная скважина; 6) светильный или отопительный газ; 7) использовать газ из неглубокой скважины; 8) мелкокалиберная свинцовая труба; 9) отсутствие возможности транспортировать большое количество газа на дальние расстояния; 10) герметичный стык трубопровода; 11) объёмные материалы и строительные технологии; 12) сжигать в факелах; 13) транспортировка газа на дальние расстояния; 14) конструирование труб диаметром до 142 сантиметров; 15) проложить самый длинный газопровод; 16) побочный продукт нефтедобычи; 17) удалять газ из нефти; 18) дефицит сырой нефти; 19) важный мировой источник энергии; 20) гореть без выделения сажи, угарного газа, оксидов азота и двуокиси серы; 21) являться предпочтительным топливом с точки зрения воздействия на окружающую среду.

II. Give Russian equivalents for:

1) to be present as a gas cap above the oil; 2) natu­ral gas seeps; 3) to provide the fuel for the "eternal fires"; 4) to drill wells with bam­boo poles and primitive percussion bits; 5) to be burned to dry the rock salt; 6) gas distilled from coal; 7) primary fuel for il­luminating streets and houses; 8) the first commercial application of a petroleum product; 9) to be distributed through a small-bore lead pipe; 10) to remain on the sidelines of industrial development; 11) a breakthrough in gas-transportation technology; 12) leakproof pipeline coupling; 13) a source of supply; 14) long-distance gas transmission;15) further advances in pipeline tech­nology; 16) a diameter of up to 142 centimetres; 17) to be a nuisance by-product of oil production; 18) to be separated from the crude oil stream; 19) crude oil shortages; 20) to be replaced by abundant and cheaper supplies of natural gas; 21) to be relatively free of soot, carbon monoxide, and the nitrogen oxides associated with the burning of other fossil fuels; 22) to burn completely; 23) a preferred fuel for environmental reasons

III. Fill in the appropriate word(s) from the list below into the extracts and translate them into Russian:

a) ground, to be developed, lightning, puzzled, mystery, fire, methods, new, to seep out

Natural gas is nothing … . In fact, most of the natural gas that is brought out from under the … is millions and millions of years old. However, it was not until recently that … for obtaining this gas, bringing it to the surface, and putting it to use … .

Before there was an understanding of what natural gas was, it posed somewhat of a… to man. Sometimes, such things as … strikes would ignite natural gas that was escaping from under the earth's crust. This would create a … coming from the earth, burning the natural gas as it … from underground. These fires … most early civilizations, and were the root of much myth and superstition.

b) pipelines, salt, to commercialize, electric, well, producers, coal, infrastructure, advantage, light

It wasn't until about 500 B.C. that the Chinese discovered the potential to use these fires to their … . Finding places where gas was seeping to the surface, the Chinese formed crude … out of bamboo shoots to transport the gas, where it was used to boil sea water, separating the … and making it drinkable.

Britain was the first country … the use of natural gas. Around 1785, natural gas produced from … was used to light houses, as well as streetlights.

During most of the 19th century, natural gas was used almost exclusively as a source of … . Without a pipeline …, it was difficult to transport the gas very far, or into homes to be used for heating or cooking. Most of the natural gas produced in this era was manufactured from coal, as opposed to transported from a … . Near the end of the 19th century, with the rise of electricity, natural gas lights were converted to … lights. This led … of natural gas to look for new uses for their product.

c) building, rudimentary, to include, transportation, welding, plants, long, reliable, appliances, boilers, boom, lengthy, to obtain

One of the first … pipelines was constructed in 1891. This pipeline was 120 miles …, and carried natural gas from wells in central Indiana to the city of Chicago. However, this early pipeline was very …, and did not transport natural gas efficiently. It wasn't until the 1920's that any significant effort was put into … a pipeline infrastructure. After World War II … techniques, pipe rolling, and metallurgical advances allowed for the construction of … pipelines. This led to a post-war pipeline construction… lasting well into the 60's, creating thousands of miles of pipeline.

Once the … of natural gas was possible, new uses for natural gas were discovered. These … using natural gas to heat homes and operate … such as water heaters and oven ranges. Industry began to use natural gas in manufacturing and processing … . Also, natural gas was used to heat … used to generate electricity. The transportation infrastructure made natural gas easier …, and as a result expanded its uses.

d) invention, to be used, technology, ancient, pitch, society, towers, to indicate.

Petroleum, in one form or another, has been used since … times, and is now important across society, including in economy, politics and … . The rise in importance was mostly due to the … of the internal combustion engine and the rise in commercial aviation.

More than 4000 years ago, according to Herodotus and Diodorus Siculus, asphalt … in the construction of the walls and … of Babylon; there were oil pits near Ardericca (near Babylon), and a … spring on Zacynthus. Great quantities of it were found on the banks of the river Issus, one of the tributaries of the Euphrates. Ancient Persian tablets … the medicinal and lighting uses of petroleum in the upper levels of their … .

IV. Match the following terms with their definitions and give their Russian equivalents:

flare, gas transmission, to ignite, synthetic gas, pollutant, combustion, soot, by-product

1. The burning of unwanted gas through a pipe. It is a means of disposal used when there is no way to transport the gas to the market and the operator cannot use the gas for another purpose.

2. Any introduced gas, liquid, or solid that makes a resource unfit for a specific purpose.

3. Gas which has been treated and may contain compo­nents which are not typical of natural gas.

4. Activity intended to convey gas from one place to another through pipelines in order to supply gas to distribution systems or to industrial consumers.

5. A substance obtained incidentally during the manufacture or production of some other substance.

6. Finely divided particles, mainly carbon, produced and deposited during the incomplete combustion of organic materials.

7. To cause to burn.

8. The oxidation of materials accompanied by the development of heat and usually the production of flame.

V. Explain the following terms using a specialized dictionary and glossary, give their Russian equivalents and make up your own sentences with them:

associated/ nonassociated gas, coal gas, pipeline coupling, to flare, small-bore lead pipe

VI. Give English translation for:

Использование природного газа для удовлетворения различных потребностей человека началось задолго до рождения современной газовой промышленности. Оно имеет такую же богатую и даже более длительную историю, чем использование нефти, битума, асфальта.

Из истории развития человечества известно, что природный горючий газ был известен с древнейших времен, но его использование не имело широкого распространения. В местах выхода его на поверхность земли он иногда загорался, и такой факел существовал долгое время. Эти факелы называли вечным огнем. Первые успешные попытки применения газообразного топлива были предприняты в Древнем Китае не менее чем за 1000 лет до нашей эры. Природный газ добывавли при помощи глубоких скважин и перекачивали по бамбуковым трубопроводам. Он использовался в качестве топлива для выпаривания соли из естественных соляных растворов, а так же для освещения и отопления.

Долгое время газообразное топливо не было известно в Европе и США. Впервые использовать газ в коммерческих целях начали в Британии. Тогда искусственный (каменноугольный) газ стали применять для освещения улиц, жилых домов. Использование природного газа в промышленных масштабах началось гораздо позже – в 70-х годах позапрошлого столетия. Становление же мировой промышленности природного газа началось лишь после окончания второй мировой войны.

Природный газ ныне широко используется в качестве топлива и сырья для химической промышленности. Как источник энергии природный газ является одним из главных на Земле, уступая лишь нефти. Это связанно с преимуществами природного газа над другими видами топлива. Теплота сгорания очень высока, он не оставляет золы и является самым экологически чистым топливом.

C. Discussion

Topics for discussion:

1. History of petroleum

2. Natural gas as an important world energy source.

Unit 3. Natural Gas under the Earth (The Formation of Natural Gas)

Active vocabulary

1.	bond/ to bond	связь, соединение, сцепление /связывать
2.	methanogens	метан-продуцирующие бактерии
3.	void /devoid void of air	пустота, вакуум; свободный; лишённый (чего-л.) безвоздушный
4.	landfill gas	газ из органических отходов
5.	dome	купол (резервуара)
6.	cap rock	покрывающая порода; покрывающий пласт
7.	dispersibility	дисперсность
8.	encroachment	захват, наступление (фронта воды), обводнение
9.	conventional gas	газ из "обычных" месторождений
10.	essential	важнейший; необходимый; основной
11.	sufficient for sth	достаточный для чего-либо
12.	biogenic/ abiogenic	биогенный/ абиогенный
13.	inanimate	неживой, неодушевлённый
14.	thermogenic	термогенный
15.	to harvest	жать, собирать, пожинать плоды
16.	to neglect	пренебрегать (чем-л.) ; игнорировать, не обращать внимания
17.	to ponder	1) обдумывать, взвешивать 2) (ponder on / over) размышлять (над чем-л.)
18.	to dissipate	рассеиваться
19.	to be under high/ low pressure	находиться под высоким/ низким давлением
20.	to display	обнаруживать, проявлять
21.	to be termed/ be referred to as	обозначаться термином
22.	to layer	наслаивать, класть пластами, слоями
23.	to recover from a well	добывать из скважины
24.	to occur in association with/ together	залегать вместе с чем-либо
25.	essentially	1) по существу 2) существенно, существенным образом
26.	economic limit	экономический предел (эксплуатации)
27.	in-place gas	газ в пласте

Natural gas is a fossil fuel. Like oil and coal, this means that it is, essentially, the remains of plants and animals and microorganisms that lived millions and millions of years ago. But how do these once living organisms become an inanimate mixture of gases?

There are many different theories as to the origins of fossil fuels, including natural gas. The most widely accepted theory says that fossil fuels are formed when organic matter is compressed under the earth, at very high pressure for a very long time. This is referred to as thermogenic methane. Similar to the formation of oil, thermogenic methane is formed from organic particles that are covered in mud and other sediment. Over time, more and more sediment and mud and other debris are piled on top of the organic matter. This sediment and debris puts a great deal of pressure on the organic matter, which compresses it. This compression, combined with high temperatures found deep underneath the earth, break down the carbon bonds in the organic matter. At low temperatures (shallower deposits), more oil is produced relative to natural gas. At higher temperatures, however, more natural gas is created, as opposed to oil.

Natural gas can also be formed through the transformation of organic matter by tiny microorganisms. This type of methane is referred to as biogenic methane. Methanogens, tiny methane producing microorganisms, chemically break down organic matter to produce methane. These microorganisms are commonly found in areas near the surface of the earth that are void of oxygen and the produced methane is usually lost into the atmosphere. In certain circumstances, however, this methane can be trapped underground, recoverable as natural gas. An example of biogenic methane is landfill gas. Waste-containing landfills produce a relatively large amount of natural gas, from the decomposition of the waste materials that they contain. New technologies are allowing this gas to be harvested and used to add to the supply of natural gas.

A third way in which methane (and natural gas) may be formed is through abiogenic processes. Extremely deep under the earth's crust, there exist hydrogen-rich gases and carbon molecules. As these gases gradually rise towards the surface of the earth, they may interact with minerals that also exist underground, in the absence of oxygen. This interaction may result in a reaction, forming elements and compounds that are found in the atmosphere (including nitrogen, oxygen, carbon dioxide, argon, and water). If these gases are under very high pressure as they move towards the surface of the earth, they are likely to form methane deposits, similar to thermogenic methane.

Although there are several ways that methane, and thus natural gas, may be formed, it is usually found underneath the surface of the earth. As natural gas has a low density, once formed it will rise towards the surface of the earth through loose, shale type rock and other material. Most of this methane will simply rise to the surface and dissipate into the air. However, a great deal of this methane will rise up into geological formations that 'trap' the gas under the ground. These formations are made up of layers of porous, sedimentary rock (kind of like a sponge, that soaks up and contains the gas), with a denser, impermeable layer of rock on top. This impermeable rock traps the natural gas under the ground. If these formations are large enough, they can trap a great deal of natural gas underground, in what is known as a reservoir. There are a number of different types of these formations, but the most common is created when the impermeable sedimentary rock forms a 'dome' shape, like an umbrella, that catches all of the natural gas that is floating to the surface. To successfully bring fossil fuels to the surface, a hole must be drilled through the impermeable rock to release the fossil fuels under pressure. Note that in reservoirs that contain oil and gas, the gas, being the least dense, is found closest to the surface, with the oil beneath it, typically followed by a certain amount of water.

Like oil natural gas migrates and accumulates in traps. But oil accumulations contain more recoverable energy than gas accumulations of similar size, even though the recovery of gas is a more efficient process than the recovery of oil. This is due to the differences in the physical and chemical properties of gas and oil. Gas displays initial low concentration and high dispersibility, making adequate cap rocks very important. Natural gas can be the primary target of either deep or shallow drilling because large gas accumulations form above the oil window as a result of biogenic processes and thermal gas occurs throughout and below the oil window. In most sedimentary basins the vertical potential (and sediment volume) available for gas generation exceeds that of oil. About a quarter of the known major gas fields are related to a shallow biogenic origin, but most major gas fields are located at intermediate or deeper levels where higher temperatures and older reservoirs (often carbonates sealed by evaporates) exist.

Conventional gas reservoirs.

Gas reservoirs differ greatly, with different physical variations affecting reservoir performance and recovery. In a natural gas (single-phase) reservoir it should be possible to recover nearly all of the in-place gas by dropping the pressure sufficiently. If the pressure is effectively maintained by the encroachment of water in the sedimentary rock formation, however, some of the gas will be lost to production by being trapped by capillarity behind the advancing water front. Therefore, in practice, only about 80 percent of the in-place gas can be recovered. On the other hand, if the pressure declines, there is an economic limit at which the cost of compression exceeds the value of the recovered gas. Depending on formation permeability, actual gas recovery can be as high as 75 to 80 percent of the original in-place gas in the reservoir. Associated gas is produced along with the oil and separated at the surface.